Today's topic on GST 105, we are going to explore both the conceptual foundations of science and its historical development from ancient times to the dawn of modern science. It begins with the study of laws of nature, which describe consistent patterns in the universe and provide the structure for scientific prediction and application. From there, attention shifts to the early civilizations of Babylon, Egypt, and Greece, whose achievements in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy laid the groundwork for later scientific progress.
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The journey continues into the Middle Ages of Europe, a period marked less by innovation than by preservation of knowledge, much of it sustained through Islamic scholarship and the efforts of religious institutions. Finally, the section highlights the Renaissance and the rise of modern science, when thinkers such as Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Bacon, Descartes, and Newton transformed science into a discipline based on observation, mathematics, and experimentation.
Laws of Nature
Scientific laws are among the most important outcomes of scientific inquiry. They represent statements about how certain aspects of nature consistently behave under specified conditions. Unlike everyday rules or regulations, scientific laws are not imposed by authority but are discovered through observation and repeated experimentation.
Nature of Scientific Laws
- A scientific law describes what happens in nature, not why it happens.
- Laws are derived from repeated confirmation of observations and experiments.
- They are generalizations that hold true under the same conditions anywhere, anytime.
Characteristics of Scientific Laws
- Universality – A scientific law is valid across space and time. For instance, the law of gravity applies whether on Earth or in outer space.
- Precision – Laws are often expressed in mathematical terms to eliminate ambiguity (e.g., Newton’s Second Law: F = ma).
- Predictability – Laws allow scientists to predict outcomes. Knowing Boyle’s Law, for example, helps us predict how gases behave under pressure.
- Testability – Laws are open to testing and verification. If evidence contradicts them, they may be modified or discarded.
Examples of Scientific Laws
- Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation – every particle attracts every other particle with a force proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance.
- Boyle’s Law – at constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume.
- Ohm’s Law – the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to resistance.
Laws vs Theories
While both are products of science, they serve different purposes. A law describes observed patterns (what happens), while a theory explains the reasons behind those patterns (why it happens). For example, Newton’s laws describe motion, while Einstein’s theory of relativity explains deeper aspects of gravity and time.
Rise of Modern Science
The Renaissance period (14th–17th centuries) marked a turning point in human history. It was an age of renewed learning, exploration, and questioning of old authorities. Science began to move away from religious and traditional explanations, embracing observation, experimentation, and mathematics as the tools for discovering truth. This shift is what historians describe as the “rise of modern science.”
Key Characteristics of the Period
- Return to Classical Learning – Scholars revisited Greek and Roman works, reinterpreting them in new ways.
- Emphasis on Observation and Experimentation – Knowledge was no longer accepted just because it came from authority; it had to be tested and proven.
- Application of Mathematics – Mathematics became the language of science, used to explain motion, measure the heavens, and predict natural phenomena.
Great Thinkers of the Renaissance and Scientific Revolution
- Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) – Proposed the heliocentric theory, arguing that the sun, not the earth, is at the center of the universe.
- Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) – Improved the telescope, studied planetary motion, and supported Copernicus’ ideas. His insistence on evidence over tradition brought him into conflict with the Church.
- Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) – Formulated the laws of planetary motion, showing that planets move in elliptical orbits rather than perfect circles.
- Francis Bacon (1561–1626) – Advocated the empirical method, stressing careful observation and systematic collection of data.
- René Descartes (1596–1650) – Introduced deductive reasoning and emphasized doubt and rational thought as a way to discover truth.
- Isaac Newton (1642–1727) – Synthesized earlier discoveries, formulating the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which became the foundation of classical physics.
Impact of the Rise of Modern Science
- Challenged old worldviews (e.g., geocentric theory).
- Gave birth to the scientific method as a disciplined way of inquiry.
- Provided the foundation for modern disciplines such as physics, chemistry, and biology.
- Inspired new inventions and technologies that transformed industry, navigation, and communication.
History of Western Science (Ancient Times)
The roots of Western science are traced back to the great civilizations of antiquity. Ancient peoples such as the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks laid the groundwork for the systematic study of nature long before modern science emerged. Their contributions formed the basis upon which later scientific revolutions were built.
Babylonian Contributions
- The Babylonians excelled in astronomy. They carefully observed the movement of stars and planets, producing detailed records that later guided Greek scholars.
- They developed mathematics, particularly arithmetic and geometry, which were applied to agriculture, construction, and timekeeping.
- The Babylonian calendar, based on lunar cycles, demonstrates their ability to combine observation with practical needs.
Egyptian Contributions
- Ancient Egypt was renowned for its medicine. Using herbs, surgery, and empirical treatments, Egyptian physicians influenced later traditions in Greece and Rome.
- Egyptians also advanced engineering and architecture, as seen in the construction of pyramids and irrigation systems along the Nile.
- Their knowledge of geometry was applied in land measurement and building design.
Greek Contributions
The Greeks took scientific thought further by moving away from mythological explanations to rational inquiry.
- Thales of Miletus is regarded as one of the first to seek natural causes rather than attributing events to the gods.
- Pythagoras contributed to mathematics and introduced the idea that numerical relationships underlie natural phenomena.
- Aristotle systematized knowledge across biology, physics, and philosophy, laying a foundation that dominated Western thought for centuries.
Key Features of Ancient Science
- It was closely tied to practical life — agriculture, architecture, and medicine.
- It relied heavily on observation, though not always on experimentation as modern science does.
- It introduced the habit of rational explanation, setting the stage for later scientific inquiry.
Science in the Middle Ages of Europe
The Middle Ages, often referred to as the “Dark Ages” (roughly 5th to 15th century), came after the fall of the Roman Empire. During this period, the pace of scientific progress in Europe slowed significantly. Political instability, wars, and the dominance of religious authority made it difficult for independent inquiry to flourish.
Preservation of Knowledge
- Despite stagnation, much of the scientific knowledge of the Greeks and Romans was preserved by monks in monasteries who copied manuscripts.
- A more significant contribution came from the Islamic world, where scholars in Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordoba translated Greek works into Arabic and expanded upon them. Thinkers such as Avicenna (Ibn Sina) in medicine and Averroes (Ibn Rushd) in philosophy kept science alive during this period.
- Later, these Arabic texts were reintroduced to Europe through translations into Latin, providing the basis for renewed learning.
Science and the Church
- The Christian Church held great authority in Europe at this time. While it provided education through cathedral schools and universities, it also discouraged ideas that challenged religious teachings.
- Natural phenomena were often explained in theological terms rather than scientific ones. For example, illness was sometimes attributed to sin or divine punishment rather than biological causes.
Areas of Limited Progress
- Despite restrictions, some progress was made in agriculture, with innovations like the heavy plough and crop rotation improving food production.
- In architecture, the Gothic style of cathedrals reflected practical advances in engineering and design.
- Alchemy, although not yet true chemistry, was practiced widely and paved the way for later discoveries.
📚 References
Textbooks & Academic Sources
Chalmers, A. F. (2013). What is this thing called science? (4th ed.). Open University Press.
Feyerabend, P. (2010). Against method. Verso Books.
Hacking, I. (1983). Representing and intervening: Introductory topics in the philosophy of natural science. Cambridge University Press.
Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press.
Ladyman, J. (2002). Understanding philosophy of science. Routledge.
Okasha, S. (2002). Philosophy of science: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
Okoye, C. N. (2014). GST 105: History and philosophy of science. National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN).
Ogunniyi, M. B. (1988). Science, technology and society: An introduction. University Press Ltd.
Omolewa, M. (2001). General studies: A handbook for students. Heinemann Educational Books (Nig.) Ltd.
Popper, K. R. (2002). The logic of scientific discovery. Routledge Classics.
Journal Articles
Laudan, L. (1981). A confutation of convergent realism. Philosophy of Science, 48(1), 19–49. https://doi.org/10.1086/288975
Rosenberg, A. (2000). Philosophy of science and its discontents. Westview Press.
Agassi, J. (1991). Science and its history: A reassessment of the historiography of science. Springer.
Online Resources
National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). (n.d.). GST 105: History and philosophy of science. NOUN. https://nou.edu.ng/
Nolt, J. (2018). Philosophy of science. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Fall 2018 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/science/
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP). (n.d.). Philosophy of science. https://iep.utm.edu/phil-sci/
OER Commons. (n.d.). History and philosophy of science resources. https://www.oercommons.org/