Every Nigerian university student, whether studying engineering, medicine, law, or even the arts, will encounter GST 105 – History and Philosophy of Science at the 100-level. It is one of the compulsory General Studies (GST) courses designed to broaden your perspective beyond your main discipline.
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GST 105 introduces students to what science really is, how it began, how it has evolved through history, and the role of philosophy in shaping scientific thought. It also explores the relationship between science and technology, the impact of inventions on human society, and the often-forgotten contributions of Africans — especially Nigerians — to global scientific development.
Course Outline
Module 1: Foundations of Science
- The Nature of Science
- The Scientific Method
- Basic Scientific Theories
- Laws of Nature
- History of Western Science — 1 (Origin of Western Science in Ancient Times)
Module 2: Development of Science
- History of Science — 2 (Science in the Middle Ages of Europe)
- History of Science — 3 (Rise of Modern Science)
- History of Science — 4 (The Twentieth Century Scientific Revolution)
- The Lost Sciences of Africa — 1: An Overview
- The Lost Sciences of Africa — 2: An Overview
Module 3: Science, Technology, and Philosophy
- Science, Technology and Inventions
- Social Implications of Technological Advancement
- The Nature and Scope of Philosophy of Science
- Man and His Origin
- The Nature of Man
Module 4: Man, Nature, and Contributions
- Man and His Cosmic Environment
- Man and His Natural Resources
- Great Scientists of Nigerian Origin
- Revision
- Revision
- Understanding the nature of science
- Step-by-step guide to the scientific method
- Download GST 105 handout, outline, and summary notes
- History and philosophy of science – course note 2
- GST 105 lecture note on laws of nature
- Explore more free university courses
- Practice GST 105 CBT questions and answers
handout for GST 105- history and philosophy of science.
Module 1: Foundations of Science
Unit 1: The Nature of Science
Science comes from the Latin scientia, meaning knowledge. It is:
- A body of knowledge – facts, principles, and theories about the natural world.
- A method – systematic ways of acquiring knowledge (observation, experimentation, reasoning).
- An institution – a community of experts who advance knowledge.
Branches of Science:
- Formal sciences: mathematics, logic, statistics.
- Empirical sciences: natural sciences (physics, chemistry, biology) and applied sciences (medicine, engineering).
Science is different from non-science (religion, superstition, art) because it is objective, systematic, and testable.
Unit 2: The Scientific Method
The scientific method is the backbone of research. Steps include:
- Observation
- Problem identification
- Hypothesis formulation
- Experimentation
- Analysis and conclusion
- Theory formation
It encourages critical and creative thinking, which students can also apply in daily problem-solving.
Unit 3: Basic Scientific Theories
A theory is not a guess but a well-tested explanation of natural phenomena.
- Example: Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, Cell Theory, Germ Theory of Disease.
- Theories can change or improve when new evidence arises.
Unit 4: Laws of Nature
A scientific law describes consistent patterns in nature.
- Example: Newton’s Law of Motion, Law of Gravity.
- Unlike theories, laws state what happens but not why.
Unit 5: History of Western Science (Ancient Times)
Science began in ancient civilizations:
- Babylonians – astronomy and mathematics.
- Egyptians – medicine, engineering, architecture.
- Greeks – philosophers like Thales, Pythagoras, and Aristotle introduced rational inquiry and logical reasoning.
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Module 2: Development of Science
Unit 6: Science in the Middle Ages of Europe
After Rome’s fall, Europe experienced scientific stagnation. Knowledge was preserved in monasteries and Islamic scholarship. Religious dogma sometimes limited inquiry, but this period laid foundations for later progress.
Unit 7: Rise of Modern Science
The Renaissance reawakened learning. Key figures include:
- Copernicus – heliocentric theory (sun at the center).
- Galileo – telescope observations.
- Kepler – planetary motion.
This marked the shift from blind belief to observation and mathematics.
Unit 8: The Twentieth Century Scientific Revolution
The 20th century brought groundbreaking discoveries:
- Einstein’s Theory of Relativity.
- Quantum mechanics.
- DNA structure.
- Advances in medicine, electronics, and space exploration.
Science reshaped communication, industry, and warfare.
Unit 9: The Lost Sciences of Africa (Overview 1)
African contributions are often ignored. Ancient Africa advanced in:
- Medicine – herbal treatments.
- Metallurgy – iron smelting.
- Agriculture – irrigation, crop domestication.
Unit 10: The Lost Sciences of Africa (Overview 2)
Further examples include:
- Nok and Ife – iron smelting and art technology.
- Mali – astronomy and mathematics (Timbuktu scholars).
- Ethiopia – calendar and timekeeping.
Module 3: Science, Technology, and Philosophy
Unit 11: Science, Technology and Inventions
Technology = applied science.
Examples:
- The wheel, steam engine, electricity, computer, internet.
Unit 12: Social Implications of Technological Advancement
Positive: better healthcare, faster communication, efficient transport.
Negative: pollution, unemployment from automation, nuclear threats.
Unit 13: Philosophy of Science
Philosophy of science examines assumptions, methods, and limits of science. It asks:
- Is science objective?
- How reliable are experiments?
- What is truth in science?
Unit 14: Man and His Origin
Two perspectives:
- Religious view – man created by God.
- Scientific view – Darwin’s theory of evolution.
Unit 15: The Nature of Man
Humans are unique because of:
- Rationality.
- Language.
- Creativity.
- Moral reasoning.
Module 4: Man, Nature, and Contributions
Unit 16: Man and His Cosmic Environment
The universe (earth, sun, moon, stars) influences human life through gravity, radiation, and seasons.
Unit 17: Man and His Natural Resources
Water, air, forests, and minerals sustain life. Misuse leads to scarcity and environmental problems. Conservation is key.
Unit 18: Great Scientists of Nigerian Origin
- Chike Obi – mathematics.
- Philip Emeagwali – computing and internet technology.
- Benjamin Oluwakayode Osuntokun – neurology and medicine.
Units 19 & 20: Revision
The course closes with revision to consolidate all the lessons from Modules 1–4.
Details summaries of history and philosophy of science
Module 1 Summary – Foundations of Science
Unit 1: The Nature of Science
This unit defines science in three ways: as a body of knowledge, a method of acquiring knowledge, and an institution. It distinguishes science from non-science fields like religion and art, and explains its branches: formal sciences (mathematics, logic, statistics) and empirical sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, etc.). It also emphasizes the aim of science—explaining, predicting, and controlling nature.
Unit 2: The Scientific Method
Here, the focus is on the process of acquiring scientific knowledge. The steps include observation, problem definition, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, conclusion, and theory development. Real-life and historical examples show how this method works. The unit stresses creative and critical thinking as necessary tools for effective problem-solving, both in science and in daily life.
Unit 3: Basic Scientific Theories
This unit explains the concept of a scientific theory as a tested and widely accepted explanation, different from a hypothesis. Theories are open to revision when new evidence arises. Examples are given to show how theories provide coherence to scientific knowledge.
Unit 4: Laws of Nature
Scientific laws are general principles that describe regularities observed in nature. Unlike theories, they do not explain why phenomena occur but state what always happens under specific conditions. They are established through consistent observation and experimentation.
Unit 5: History of Western Science — 1 (Origin of Western Science in Ancient Times)
This unit introduces the beginnings of Western science in ancient civilizations such as Babylon, Egypt, and Greece. It highlights the contributions of early thinkers like Thales, Pythagoras, and Aristotle, who shifted explanations of the natural world from myths to rational, systematic inquiry.
Module 2 Summary – Development of Science
Unit 1: History of Science — 2 (Science in the Middle Ages of Europe)
This unit examines science during the European Middle Ages. After the fall of the Roman Empire, scientific progress slowed, but knowledge was preserved in monasteries and through translations by Arab and Islamic scholars. While superstition and religious dominance often limited scientific growth, the groundwork was laid for later progress through preserved manuscripts and early experiments.
Unit 2: History of Science — 3 (Rise of Modern Science)
Here, the course highlights the rebirth of learning during the Renaissance. Thinkers like Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler challenged old beliefs, especially the geocentric view of the universe. The emphasis shifted to observation, experimentation, and mathematics as tools for understanding nature. This period marked the true beginning of modern science, where systematic inquiry replaced dogma and authority.
Unit 3: History of Science — 4 (The Twentieth Century Scientific Revolution)
The 20th century brought a radical transformation of science. Discoveries like Einstein’s theory of relativity, quantum mechanics, DNA structure, and advances in electronics, medicine, and space exploration revolutionized human knowledge. This unit shows how science expanded rapidly, reshaping industries, warfare, communication, and everyday life.
Unit 4: The Lost Sciences of Africa — 1 (An Overview)
This unit introduces the often-overlooked contributions of Africans to science outside Egypt. It emphasizes African innovations in medicine, agriculture, metallurgy, architecture, and technology. Ancient Africans were not only consumers but producers of knowledge, and their scientific achievements influenced global civilizations.
Unit 5: The Lost Sciences of Africa — 2 (An Overview)
The discussion continues with more detailed examples of African scientific contributions. From sophisticated iron smelting techniques in Nok and Ife to astronomical knowledge in Mali and Ethiopia, the unit reminds students that Africa played a significant role in shaping human progress. It challenges the stereotype that science is exclusively Western by restoring African heritage to its rightful place in history.
In short, Module 2 traces science from its medieval stagnation to the breakthroughs of modern and 20th-century revolutions, while also reclaiming Africa’s contributions to global scientific development.
Module 3 Summary – Science, Technology, and Philosophy (GST 105)
Unit 1: Science, Technology and Inventions
This unit explains the close relationship between science and technology. Science provides knowledge, while technology applies that knowledge in practical ways. The history of human progress is filled with inventions such as the wheel, steam engine, electricity, and computers — all direct outcomes of scientific discovery. In the context of GST 105, this unit reminds us that technology is the applied face of science, shaping industries, medicine, transportation, and even communication.
Unit 2: Social Implications of Technological Advancement
Here the focus is on the double-edged nature of technology. On one hand, it improves living standards through better healthcare, agriculture, and industrial efficiency. On the other hand, it has introduced challenges like pollution, environmental degradation, unemployment due to automation, and ethical dilemmas surrounding nuclear weapons and genetic engineering. GST 105 stresses that students should not only admire technological progress but also critically assess its impact on society.
Unit 3: The Nature and Scope of Philosophy of Science
This unit introduces philosophy of science as the reflective study of how science works. It looks into the methods, assumptions, and limits of scientific inquiry. GST 105 uses this section to make students aware that science is not just about facts, but also about questioning how those facts are obtained, interpreted, and applied. Issues like objectivity, logic, reasoning, and the validity of scientific claims fall under this scope.
Unit 4: Man and His Origin
Here, the age-old question of human origin is explored. GST 105 presents two broad schools of thought: the religious view, which attributes man’s origin to divine creation, and the scientific view, particularly evolution, which explains human development through natural processes. Students are encouraged to critically examine both perspectives and form a balanced outlook.
Unit 5: The Nature of Man
The final unit in this module looks at what makes humans unique. It covers physical, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual dimensions of man. Rational thought, language, creativity, and moral reasoning are presented as key features that distinguish man from other animals. In GST 105, this discussion is designed to help students reflect on their human identity, purpose, and responsibility in a scientific and philosophical context.
Module 4 Summary – Man, Nature, and Nigerian Scientists (GST 105)
Unit 1: Man and His Cosmic Environment
This unit explores the place of man in the universe. The cosmic environment includes the Earth, moon, sun, stars, and galaxies. GST 105 explains how natural phenomena like the rotation of the Earth, the gravitational pull of the moon, and solar radiation affect human life. It reminds students that man is not isolated but part of a wider cosmic order, dependent on natural forces beyond his control.
Unit 2: Man and His Natural Resources
Here, attention shifts to the resources around us — water, air, soil, forests, and minerals. GST 105 emphasizes that these resources sustain life, but misuse or overexploitation can lead to scarcity and ecological crises. Students are urged to understand resource management as a responsibility for sustainable development, especially in a country like Nigeria where natural resources form the backbone of the economy.
Unit 3: Great Scientists of Nigerian Origin
This unit highlights Nigerian contributions to global science. Figures like Chike Obi (mathematics), Philip Emeagwali (computing), and Benjamin Oluwakayode Osuntokun (medicine) are celebrated for their groundbreaking work. The goal of GST 105 here is to inspire students, showing that Nigerians are not only beneficiaries of science but also active contributors to its advancement.
Unit 4 & 5: Revision
The last two units are dedicated to revision. They pull together the lessons from all four modules, preparing students for assessments and final examinations. GST 105 encourages learners to review the key concepts, theories, laws, historical milestones, and the philosophical issues discussed throughout the course.
Conclusion
GST 105 – History and Philosophy of Science – is not just about passing exams. It is about helping students appreciate the origins of knowledge, the methods of scientific inquiry, the impact of technology on society, and the contributions of Africans and Nigerians to global science. By understanding this, students are better equipped to think critically, act responsibly, and contribute meaningfully to their communities and the world.
📚 References
Textbooks & Academic Sources
Chalmers, A. F. (2013). What is this thing called science? (4th ed.). Open University Press.
Feyerabend, P. (2010). Against method. Verso Books.
Hacking, I. (1983). Representing and intervening: Introductory topics in the philosophy of natural science. Cambridge University Press.
Kuhn, T. S. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press.
Ladyman, J. (2002). Understanding philosophy of science. Routledge.
Okasha, S. (2002). Philosophy of science: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
Okoye, C. N. (2014). GST 105: History and philosophy of science. National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN).
Ogunniyi, M. B. (1988). Science, technology and society: An introduction. University Press Ltd.
Omolewa, M. (2001). General studies: A handbook for students. Heinemann Educational Books (Nig.) Ltd.
Popper, K. R. (2002). The logic of scientific discovery. Routledge Classics.
Journal Articles
Laudan, L. (1981). A confutation of convergent realism. Philosophy of Science, 48(1), 19–49. https://doi.org/10.1086/288975
Rosenberg, A. (2000). Philosophy of science and its discontents. Westview Press.
Agassi, J. (1991). Science and its history: A reassessment of the historiography of science. Springer.
Online Resources
National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). (n.d.). GST 105: History and philosophy of science. NOUN. https://nou.edu.ng/
Nolt, J. (2018). Philosophy of science. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Fall 2018 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/science/
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (IEP). (n.d.). Philosophy of science. https://iep.utm.edu/phil-sci/
OER Commons. (n.d.). History and philosophy of science resources. https://www.oercommons.org/