QUESTIONS
Section A: Theology (at least one required)
- Examine the concept of Qadr and what Muslims understand from it.
- Carefully explain the nature of belief in the Last Day by reflecting on chapter 98: verses 6-8 of the Quran.
- Examine the concept of Kufr in Islam and discuss its types and differences.
- Explain the meaning of hypocrisy, types and their differences.
Section B: Religious Movements (at least one required)
5. Examine the concept of Sufism and their contributions to the spread of Islam in West Africa.
6. Give an account of the life and contributions of Muhammad bn Abdulwahab.
7. Give an account of the life and contributions of Shehu Usmanu bin Fodiyo.
8. Examine Islamic evidence on tolerance in religion.
ANSWERS
1. The concept of Qadr
- Qadr (Divine Decree/Predestination) means that Allah has foreknowledge of, and has decreed, all that happens in the universe — good and bad — before it occurs
- It is one of the six articles of faith (Iman) in Islam
- Muslims understand that Allah's knowledge is eternal and complete; nothing happens outside His will and wisdom
- However, Islam teaches that humans still possess free will (Ikhtiyar) and are responsible for their actions/choices
- Qadr does not mean fatalism; Muslims are encouraged to strive, plan, and work while trusting the outcome to Allah (Tawakkul)
- Belief in Qadr brings comfort in hardship and humility in success, since both good and bad are seen as tests from Allah
- Evidence includes Quranic verses affirming Allah's knowledge and decree over all creation
2. Belief in the Last Day (reflecting Q98:6-8)
- Belief in the Last Day (Yawm al-Qiyamah) is a fundamental article of Islamic faith
- Surah 98 (Al-Bayyinah), verses 6-8, contrasts the fate of disbelievers and believers on that Day
- Verse 6: Disbelievers among the People of the Book and polytheists who reject faith will be in the Fire of Hell, abiding therein — described as the worst of creatures
- Verses 7-8: Those who believe and do righteous deeds are the best of creatures; their reward with Allah is Gardens of Eternity (Jannah), with rivers flowing beneath, to abide forever — Allah is pleased with them and they with Him
- This teaches that final judgment is based on faith and righteous deeds
- It reinforces accountability: every soul will be rewarded or punished according to belief and conduct
- Belief in the Last Day encourages moral discipline, since actions in this life have eternal consequences
3. The concept of Kufr, its types and differences
- Kufr means disbelief, rejection, or denial of Islamic faith/truth after it has been made clear
- One who commits Kufr is called a Kafir
Types of Kufr:
- Kufr al-Inkar (Kufr of denial): Total rejection of Allah's existence and message with the heart and tongue
- Kufr al-Juhud (Kufr of rejection despite inner conviction): Denying the truth outwardly while inwardly acknowledging it (e.g., out of arrogance or self-interest)
- Kufr al-Nifaq (Kufr of hypocrisy): Outwardly professing Islam while inwardly disbelieving
- Kufr al-Shirk (Kufr of associating partners with Allah): Worshipping or ascribing divinity to other than Allah
- Kufr al-Ni'mah (Kufr of ingratitude): Denying or being ungrateful for Allah's blessings, without necessarily leaving the faith
Differences: Some forms (like Shirk, Inkar, Juhud) constitute major disbelief that takes one outside Islam entirely, while others (like Kufr al-Ni'mah) are lesser and relate more to sinfulness/ingratitude than outright apostasy; Nifaq is particularly dangerous because it is concealed disbelief behind a Muslim identity.
4. Meaning of hypocrisy, types and differences
- Hypocrisy (Nifaq) means outwardly professing Islam and faith while inwardly harboring disbelief or insincerity
- A hypocrite is called a Munafiq
Types:
- Nifaq al-I'tiqadi (Belief-based/Major hypocrisy): Complete inner disbelief masked by outward practice of Islam — this takes one out of the fold of Islam and is condemned severely in the Quran (e.g., Surah Al-Munafiqun)
- Nifaq al-Amali (Practical/Minor hypocrisy): A believer who has traits of hypocrisy in behavior (e.g., lying, breaking promises, betraying trust, dishonesty in disputes) without disbelieving inwardly — this does not remove one from Islam but is a serious sin
Differences: Major hypocrisy involves genuine disbelief hidden behind a false profession of faith (making the person a non-Muslim in reality), while minor/practical hypocrisy involves a true believer displaying hypocritical character traits without losing their faith.
5. Sufism and its contributions to the spread of Islam in West Africa
- Sufism (Tasawwuf) is the mystical/spiritual dimension of Islam, emphasizing purification of the heart, closeness to Allah, asceticism, and spiritual discipline through practices like dhikr (remembrance) and following a spiritual guide (Sheikh)
- Organized into brotherhoods/orders (Tariqas), notably the Qadiriyyah and Tijaniyyah in West Africa
Contributions to spread of Islam in West Africa:
- Sufi scholars and missionaries traveled widely, peacefully preaching and establishing communities
- Emphasis on personal piety and miracles attracted converts among local populations
- Establishment of Islamic learning centers and schools that trained scholars and preachers
- Adaptation of Islamic teaching to local contexts, easing acceptance among indigenous peoples
- Sufi leaders (e.g., Uthman dan Fodio, a Qadiriyyah adherent) led religious reform and jihad movements that consolidated and expanded Islam
- Promoted brotherhood and unity among diverse ethnic groups through shared spiritual practice
- Produced influential Islamic literature and poetry that deepened religious understanding
6. Life and contributions of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
- Born in 1703 in Uyaynah, in the Najd region of Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia); died 1792
- Trained in Islamic jurisprudence (Hanbali school) and theology, studying in Mecca, Medina, and Basra
- Founder of the Wahhabi movement, a reformist and puritanical movement calling for return to "pure" monotheism (Tawhid)
Contributions:
- Condemned practices he considered Shirk (idolatry), such as visiting graves/shrines for intercession, saint veneration, and superstitious rituals
- Called for strict adherence to the Quran and Sunnah, rejecting later innovations (Bid'ah)
- Formed an alliance with Muhammad ibn Saud (1744), which gave political backing to his religious reform and laid the foundation for the First Saudi State
- His teachings led to significant religious reform across the Arabian Peninsula
- Wrote several works, most notably "Kitab al-Tawhid," which remains influential in Islamic reformist thought
- His movement significantly shaped modern Saudi Arabian religious and political identity and influenced Islamic reform movements elsewhere, including West Africa
7. Life and contributions of Shehu Usman dan Fodio
- Born in 1754 in Maratta, Gobir (present-day northern Nigeria); died 1817
- A Fulani Islamic scholar, reformer, and leader of the Qadiriyyah Sufi order
- Renowned for deep Islamic scholarship, piety, and eloquent preaching
Contributions:
- Led the Sokoto Jihad (1804) against the Hausa rulers, whom he accused of un-Islamic practices, corruption, and oppression of the masses
- Established the Sokoto Caliphate, one of the largest and most influential Islamic states in West African history
- Promoted Islamic education, especially for women (notably through his daughter, Nana Asma'u)
- Wrote extensively (over 100 works) on Islamic law, theology, mysticism, and governance, including "Ihya al-Sunnah"
- Reformed the administration of justice based on Islamic law (Sharia)
- Strengthened and spread the Qadiriyyah Sufi order across the region
- His movement significantly expanded and consolidated Islam in Hausaland and beyond
- Appointed his brother Abdullahi and son Muhammad Bello to help administer the vast caliphate, ensuring organized governance rooted in Islamic principles
8. Islamic evidence on tolerance in religion
- Islam explicitly permits no compulsion in religion: "There is no compulsion in religion" (Quran 2:256), affirming freedom of belief
- The Quran instructs Muslims to invite others to Islam with wisdom and good preaching, not coercion (Quran 16:125)
- Quran 109 (Al-Kafirun) establishes mutual respect for differing beliefs: "To you be your religion, and to me be mine"
- The Quran acknowledges religious diversity as part of Allah's plan and test for humanity (Quran 5:48)
- Prophet Muhammad's treaties (e.g., the Constitution of Medina) guaranteed religious freedom and protection to Jews and other communities living among Muslims
- Islam commands justice and kindness to non-Muslims who do not fight against Muslims (Quran 60:8)
- Historical examples show Muslim rulers (e.g., Uthman dan Fodio's administration) protecting the rights of non-Muslim subjects (dhimmis) to practice their faith and be governed fairly
- These teachings collectively establish tolerance, coexistence, and respect for religious diversity as core Islamic values