50 Literary Devices You Need to Know for WAEC, NECO, JAMB and JUPEB Literature Exams

Welcome to FreshNote, your trusted Uniblog. In today's topic, we're looking at something very refreshing, in fact, an exceptional topic most lecturers or teachers wouldn't have the time to discuss in details with you.  As read from the title, you're already know what we are up to.

literary devices can make or break your performance in Nigerian literature exams. Whether you're writing WAEC, NECO, JAMB, or JUPEB, examiners expect you to identify and explain these figures of speech correctly. That is the reason students often fail on approaches to literature. The problem is that many students memorize definitions without truly understanding how these devices work and that is why the FreshNote team has complied this topic.

This guide breaks down 50 essential literary devices in plain language. I'll show you exactly what each device means, how it works, and give you relatable examples that stick in your memory. No complicated grammar or confusing explanations here. Believe me, if you follow this article meticulously, you won't have issues identifying any of them in exam. Literary devices are the baba of literature whether drama, prose or poetry.  Below, we'll group them by category such as elements of sound, comparison, opposition, substitution etc.

Ok, let's dive into the list:

Sound Devices (Making Language Musical/rhythm)

1. Alliteration

Alliteration happens when consecutive words or words close to each other start with the same consonant sound. Writers use this device to create rhythm and make their writing more memorable. The repeated sound draws attention to particular phrases and can emphasize mood or tone. 

Think about how newspaper headlines often use alliteration to catch your eye. The technique works because our brains naturally notice patterns in sound. In poetry, alliteration can slow down or speed up the reading pace depending on which sounds are repeated. 

Examples:

• "Taiwo's tasty tomato stew tempted the entire table" what form the alliteration? The repeated sounds "T"
• "Beautiful Bisi bought bright blue beads at Balogun market" (alliteration is form by the sound B)
• "Seven students silently studied Shakespeare on Saturday"

See full tutorial on elements of prose and how to apply them in literature 

2. Assonance

Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds within words that are close together. Unlike alliteration which focuses on consonants at the start of words, assonance deals with vowel sounds anywhere inside the words. This creates internal rhyming and musical quality without obvious rhyme.

Many students miss assonance because they're looking for rhyming words at the end of lines. But assonance is subtler - it's about the echo of vowel sounds creating harmony. Poetry uses this to bind lines together in ways that feel natural but planned.

Examples:

• "The street leads east to meet the chief" (the long 'ee' sound repeated)
• "Go slow on the road to Ilorin" (the 'oh' sound creates flow)
• "Try to find time to write your assignments" (the 'i' sound links these words)

3. Consonance

Consonance repeats consonant sounds, but unlike alliteration, these sounds can appear anywhere in the word - beginning, middle, or end. What matters is that the same consonant sound echoes throughout a phrase or line. This creates texture and connects words in unexpected ways.

Writers often combine consonance with other sound devices to layer their writing with multiple patterns. It's less obvious than alliteration but just as effective for creating memorable phrases. Pay attention to consonants that repeat, especially at word endings.

Examples:

• "The blank bank stood in the dark park" (the 'nk' and 'k' sounds)
• "Mike's bike broke near the market" (the hard 'k' sound throughout)
• "Pots and pans clanged in the kitchen" (the 'n' sound connects)

Check out: The rise of African drama-historical background 

4. Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia refers to words that actually sound like what they describe. These words imitate natural sounds, making writing more vivid and immediate. When you read or hear onomatopoeia, you almost experience the actual sound being described.

This device brings writing to life because it engages our sense of hearing directly. Comic books use onomatopoeia heavily, but serious literature does too. It's especially effective in describing action, weather, or environmental sounds. Nigerian writers often create new onomatopoeic words based on local sounds.

Examples:

• "The okada went vroom-vroom down the express road"
• "Rain drops went kpata-kpata on the aluminum roof all night"
• "The meat sizzled and crackled in hot palm oil - shhhhhh!"

5. Rhyme

Rhyme occurs when words share similar ending sounds. Traditional poetry relies heavily on rhyme schemes, but even modern free verse occasionally uses rhyme for emphasis. Rhyme creates expectation and satisfaction when that expectation is met. It makes text easier to remember.

Different types of rhyme exist - end rhyme, internal rhyme, slant rhyme. For your exams, focus on recognizing when words rhyme and what effect this creates. Rhyme can make serious topics feel lighter or create a sing-song quality that emphasizes meaning.

Examples:

• "The blazing sun makes children run / To find some shade when day is done"
• "Plantain chips so crisp and nice / Sold at a very fair price"
• "Under the baobab tree so wide / Young lovers came to sit and hide"

6. Rhythm

Rhythm is the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables that creates a beat in writing. Like music has tempo, writing has rhythm. This pattern affects how we read and feel about the text. Fast rhythm creates excitement, slow rhythm creates solemnity.

Poets carefully arrange words to create specific rhythms. Even prose has rhythm, though it's less regular than poetry. When you read aloud, you naturally stress some syllables more than others - that's rhythm at work. Understanding rhythm helps you appreciate why certain lines feel powerful or memorable.

Examples:

• "The RAIN comes DOWN in SHEETS to-DAY" (alternating stressed/unstressed)
• "MAR-ket WO-men CALL their WARES so LOUD" (strong regular beat)
• "soft-LY, soft-LY comes the NIGHT" (gentle, flowing rhythm)

See The 9 elements of drama every JUPEB, WAEC, NECO and JAMB candidates must know.

Comparison Devices (Showing Similarity and Connection)

7. Simile

A simile makes a direct comparison between two different things using "like" or "as." This device helps readers understand something unfamiliar by comparing it to something familiar. Similes create vivid mental images and make abstract ideas concrete.

Good similes surprise us with unexpected but accurate comparisons. Weak similes use clichés everyone has heard before. In WAEC and JAMB exams, you'll need to identify similes and explain what is being compared to what, and why the comparison is effective or meaningful.

Examples:

• "My grandmother's hands are rough like tree bark from years of farm work"
• "The classroom became as silent as a graveyard when the principal entered"
• "Traffic on Third Mainland Bridge moves like molasses on a cold morning"

8. Metaphor

Metaphor directly states that one thing IS another thing, creating identification rather than comparison. Unlike similes, metaphors don't use "like" or "as" - they're bolder and more absolute. This makes metaphors more powerful but also requires readers to work harder to understand the connection.

Metaphors can be extended throughout a whole passage or poem, creating layers of meaning. They force us to see familiar things in new ways. When analyzing metaphors in exams, explain what is being compared and what qualities are being transferred from one thing to another.

Examples:

• "Chief Okonkwo is a lion among men" (he possesses courage, strength, dominance)
• "The highway is a river of metal flowing endlessly toward Lagos"
• "Her words were daggers that pierced straight to my heart"

9. Personification

Personification gives human characteristics, emotions, or actions to non-human things - animals, objects, ideas, or natural phenomena. This device helps readers emotionally connect with abstract concepts or inanimate objects. It makes descriptions more engaging and relatable.

You'll find personification everywhere in African literature, where nature often acts with intention and feeling. When identifying personification, look for non-human things doing human actions like thinking, speaking, feeling, or making decisions. Explain what human quality is being attributed and what effect this creates.

Examples:

• "The angry sun punished farmers working in their fields without mercy"
• "Night crept slowly across the village, wrapping everything in darkness"
• "The old house groaned and complained every time strong winds blew"

10. Apostrophe

Apostrophe occurs when a speaker directly addresses someone absent, dead, imaginary, or addresses an object or abstract concept as if it could respond. This device shows intense emotion and creates dramatic effect. The speaker seems to talk to something that cannot talk back.

Don't confuse this with the punctuation mark (also called apostrophe). In literature, apostrophe reveals the speaker's emotional state and often appears in passionate speeches or poetry. It can make abstract ideas feel present and real.

Examples:

• "Oh Death, why do you come for the young and promising?"
• "Nigeria, my beloved country, when will your children know peace?"
• "Thou moon, why do you hide your face tonight of all nights?"

What is the difference between literature and theatre? Full course note

Exaggeration and Understatement Devices

11. Hyperbole

Hyperbole is extreme exaggeration used for emphasis or effect, not meant to be taken literally. We use hyperbole constantly in everyday speech without realizing it. In literature, hyperbole can be humorous, dramatic, or both. It amplifies emotions and situations to make a point.

The key to hyperbole is that everyone understands it's an exaggeration - it's not meant to deceive. Writers use it to express intense feelings or emphasize importance. When you spot hyperbole in exam passages, explain what is being exaggerated and what emotion or idea this emphasizes.

Examples:

• "I've been waiting for NEPA to restore power for a thousand years"
• "My mathematics textbook weighs ten tonnes and my bag will break"
• "I'm so hungry I could swallow an entire pot of jollof rice in one gulp"

12. Litotes

Litotes is a form of understatement that affirms something by denying its opposite. It's indirect and often sounds more polite or sophisticated than direct statement. This device creates emphasis through understatement, which can be more powerful than direct assertion.

Litotes appears frequently in formal or careful speech. It allows speakers to make strong points while seeming moderate. In literature, characters using litotes might be diplomatic, sarcastic, or genuinely modest. Context determines the tone.

Examples:

• "That professor is not unintelligent" (meaning he's very smart)
• "The exam was not exactly easy" (meaning it was extremely difficult)
• "She's not the poorest person in the community" (meaning she's quite wealthy)

13. Meiosis

Meiosis deliberately represents something as less important or smaller than it actually is. This understatement can be used for irony, humor, or to downplay achievements modestly. It's similar to litotes but more direct - simply calling something small that is obviously large.

Writers use meiosis to create contrast between what is said and what is meant. The gap between the understated description and reality creates effect. Characters using meiosis might be humble, sarcastic, or attempting to manage others' reactions.

Examples:

• Calling a mansion "just a small place where I lay my head"
• "I have a slight headache" when suffering from terrible migraine
• "It's just a scratch" when referring to a deep, bleeding wound

Contrast and Opposition Devices

14. Irony

Irony exists when there's a gap between expectation and reality, or between what is said and what is meant. Three main types exist: verbal irony (saying the opposite of what you mean), situational irony (when situations turn out opposite to expectations), and dramatic irony (when the audience knows something characters don't).

Irony is one of the most sophisticated literary devices and appears constantly in literature. It can be humorous, tragic, or both. Understanding irony requires reading carefully and thinking about context. Many exam questions test whether students can recognize and explain irony.

Examples:

• A fire station burning down completely (situational irony)
• Saying "What lovely weather!" during a terrible rainstorm (verbal irony)
• The marriage counselor who is getting divorced (situational irony)

15. Paradox

A paradox is a statement that seems contradictory or absurd but may reveal a deeper truth when examined. Paradoxes make readers pause and think. They challenge our assumptions about how things work. What seems impossible or contradictory on the surface contains wisdom underneath.

Writers use paradox to express complex truths that simple statements cannot capture. Life itself contains many paradoxes, so this device reflects reality's complexity. When analyzing paradox, explain what seems contradictory and what truth emerges from the contradiction.

Examples:

• "The more you learn, the more you realize how little you know"
• "I must be cruel only to be kind to you"
• "The beginning of wisdom is admitting your ignorance"

16. Oxymoron

An oxymoron places two contradictory terms directly next to each other, creating a compressed paradox. These two-word contradictions create striking effects and often capture complex emotions or situations that single words cannot express. Oxymorons reveal how opposites can coexist.

Many oxymorons have become common phrases we use without thinking. In literature, fresh oxymorons surprise and make us reconsider our understanding. They're particularly effective for capturing conflicted feelings or complicated situations.

Examples:

• "Sweet sorrow of leaving home for university"
• "Deafening silence filled the examination hall before results"
• "Organized chaos of Lagos rush hour traffic"

17. Antithesis

Antithesis places contrasting ideas in parallel structure, creating balance while emphasizing opposition. The grammatical similarity highlights the conceptual difference. This device appears frequently in speeches and persuasive writing because it makes ideas memorable and impactful.

Strong antithesis requires both clear opposition and balanced structure. The contrast should feel natural, not forced. Antithesis helps writers present two sides of an issue or emphasize choice between opposites.

Examples:

• "Many are called but few are chosen"
• "Give me liberty or give me death"
• "They promised heaven but delivered hell"

18. Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition places two contrasting elements close together to highlight their differences or create meaning through their proximity. Unlike antithesis which requires parallel structure, juxtaposition simply requires closeness. The contrast can be between characters, settings, ideas, or images.

Writers use juxtaposition to make social commentary, create irony, or develop character. The contrast invites readers to compare and draw conclusions. In exam passages, look for stark contrasts and consider what point the author makes through the contrast.

Examples:

• Describing a wealthy estate directly next to a crowded slum
• A character who prays loudly in church but cheats people in business
• Beautiful wedding preparations next to a paragraph about divorce

Substitution Devices (Indirect Expression)

19. Metonymy

Metonymy substitutes the name of one thing with something closely associated with it. Instead of using the direct name, writers use something connected to represent the whole idea. This device makes writing more interesting and can add layers of meaning.

Understanding metonymy requires knowing cultural and contextual associations. The substituted term should immediately bring to mind what it represents. Metonymy appears constantly in everyday speech and news reporting.

Examples:

• "The bench has ruled on the matter" (bench = judges/court)
• "Aso Rock announced new policies today" (Aso Rock = Nigerian presidency)
• "The pen is mightier than the sword" (pen = written word/diplomacy, sword = military force)

20. Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a specific type of metonymy where a part represents the whole, or the whole represents a part. This device creates focus and can make statements more concrete or more general, depending on how it's used.

Many common expressions use synecdoche without us realizing it. In literature, synecdoche can make descriptions more vivid by focusing on specific, memorable details that represent larger wholes.

Examples:

• "All hands on deck!" (hands = people/workers)
• "Nigeria won the match" (Nigeria = Nigerian national team)
• "Nice wheels you've got there" (wheels = entire car)

21. Euphemism

Euphemism uses mild, pleasant, or indirect words to replace harsh, blunt, or unpleasant ones. People use euphemisms to be polite, avoid giving offense, or soften difficult truths. This device reflects social norms about what is acceptable to say directly.

While euphemisms can show tact, they can also hide truth or manipulate. In literature, a character's use of euphemisms reveals their personality, social class, or attitude toward the subject. Pay attention to what is being avoided or softened.

Examples:

• "He has passed away" instead of "he died"
• "Economically disadvantaged" instead of "poor"
• "Between jobs" instead of "unemployed"

22. Periphrasis (Circumlocution)

Periphrasis uses many words where fewer would work, describing something in a roundabout way rather than naming it directly. Sometimes this creates elegance or mystery; other times it shows a character's inability or unwillingness to speak plainly.

While often associated with wordy, pompous language, periphrasis can be artful. It can create atmosphere, build suspense, or add dignity to simple things. Context determines whether periphrasis enhances or weakens writing.

Examples:

• "The monarch of the forest" instead of "lion"
• "The woman who brought me into this world" instead of "my mother"
• "The celestial body that lights our day" instead of "the sun"

Rhetorical Devices (Questions, Statements, and Appeals)

23. Rhetorical Question

A rhetorical question is asked for effect, not to get an answer. The answer is either obvious or impossible, and the question itself makes a point more effectively than a statement would. Rhetorical questions engage readers by making them mentally answer, thus participating in the argument.

These questions appear constantly in speeches, arguments, and persuasive writing. They can express frustration, make accusations, or emphasize shared beliefs. When identifying rhetorical questions in exams, explain what point the question implies or what effect it creates.

Examples:

• "Who doesn't want to pass their WAEC exams?" (obviously everyone does)
• "Am I my brother's keeper?" (questioning responsibility)
• "Does money grow on trees?" (expressing frustration about unrealistic expectations)

24. Epigram

An epigram is a brief, clever statement that expresses an idea in a witty or satirical way. Epigrams are memorable because they're short and smart. They often contain insight about human nature or social behavior packed into few words.

The best epigrams make us laugh and think simultaneously. They're quotable and often sound wise even when being playful. Writers use epigrams to reveal character wisdom or provide commentary on events.

Examples:

• "Common sense is not very common in our society"
• "Some people are only wise after the damage is done"
• "The loudest person in the room is often the emptiest"

25. Aphorism

An aphorism states a general truth or principle in a concise, memorable way. Unlike epigrams which are witty, aphorisms are serious wisdom. They're similar to proverbs but don't necessarily come from traditional folk wisdom - individuals can create new aphorisms.

Aphorisms appear in philosophical and didactic literature. They condense complex truths into simple statements. Characters who speak in aphorisms seem wise and experienced.

Examples:

• "Actions speak louder than words in all situations"
• "Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely"
• "The journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step"

26. Maxim

A maxim is a general rule or principle that guides behavior or expresses practical wisdom. Maxims are prescriptive - they tell us how to act. They're found in advice literature, religious texts, and moral instruction.

While similar to aphorisms, maxims focus specifically on conduct and ethics. They represent collected wisdom about how to live well. Characters following or violating maxims reveal their moral character.

Examples:

• "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"
• "Honesty is always the best policy in the long run"
• "If you cannot say something good, say nothing at all"

Check out Introduction to Africa drama- course note 

Imagery and Symbolic Devices

27. Imagery

Imagery uses language that appeals to our five senses - sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. Strong imagery makes writing vivid and immediate, helping readers experience what is being described rather than just understand it intellectually.

Good writers combine different types of sensory imagery to create rich, immersive scenes. In exam passages, identify which senses are being appealed to and explain how the imagery contributes to mood, theme, or characterization.

 Some of the popular imagery in literature includes: 

visual imagery (Sight) – creates pictures in the reader’s mind.(what can be seen e.g black color)

Auditory imagery  (it has to do sounds e.g drumming) Auditory Imagery (Sound) – helps readers hear sounds.

3. Olfactory Imagery (Smell) – appeals to the sense of smell.

Example: The aroma of freshly baked bread filled the small kitchen.

4. Gustatory Imagery (Taste) – describes what something tastes like. Example: The lemon left a sharp, tangy sting on her tongue.

5. Tactile Imagery (Touch) – evokes the sense of touch or texture. Example: Her fingers brushed against the cold, rough stone wall.

28. Symbol

A symbol is something that represents or stands for something beyond its literal meaning. Objects, characters, actions, or settings can function symbolically. Symbols carry additional significance that enriches the text's meaning.

Interpreting symbols requires attention to context and patterns. The same symbol can mean different things in different works. Some symbols are universal or cultural, while others are created specifically within a text. Explain what the symbol represents and how you know.

Examples:

• A dove representing peace or the Holy Spirit
• A journey representing life's progression or character growth
• Dawn or sunrise representing new beginnings and hope

29. Allegory

Allegory is an extended narrative where characters, events, and settings represent abstract ideas or moral qualities. The surface story seems simple, but everything points to a deeper meaning. Entire works can be allegorical.

Understanding allegory requires reading on two levels simultaneously - the literal story and the symbolic meaning. Often allegories teach moral or political lessons. Characters represent types rather than complex individuals.

Examples:

• Animal Farm where farm animals represent figures from the Russian Revolution
• A story about a difficult climb up a mountain representing life's struggles and spiritual growth
• A tale of two cities representing virtue and vice in conflict

30. Allusion

Allusion is a brief reference to a person, event, place, or work of art from history, literature, religion, or culture. Allusions add depth by connecting the present text to broader knowledge. They assume readers will recognize the reference.

Effective allusions enrich meaning without explanation. Missing allusions means missing layers of the text. In Nigerian literature, watch for allusions to the Bible, traditional stories, historical events, or other literary works.

Examples:

• "Don't be a Judas" (Biblical reference to betrayal)
• "He met his waterloo at the examination hall" (reference to Napoleon's defeat)
• "She's carrying her cross with patience" (Biblical reference to suffering)

Structural and Repetition Devices

31. Repetition

Repetition deliberately uses the same words, phrases, or structures multiple times for emphasis, rhythm, or emotional effect. While we're often told to avoid repetition, deliberate repetition is a powerful device that makes ideas memorable and creates emotional intensity.

The effect of repetition depends on what is repeated and how often. Too little and it lacks impact; too much and it becomes annoying. Effective repetition builds toward climax or hammers home important themes.

Examples:

• "We must try, we must persist, we must never surrender to failure"
• "Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow creeps in this petty pace"
• "Government of the people, by the people, for the people"

32. Anaphora

Anaphora repeats the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive lines, clauses, or sentences. This creates rhythm and builds emotional intensity through accumulation. Each repetition adds weight and urgency.

Anaphora appears frequently in speeches, prayers, and poetry. The repetition feels incantatory, almost hypnotic. It emphasizes whatever idea is being repeated while propelling the passage forward.

Examples:

• "Every day we wake to struggle, every day we face hardship, every day we still find reasons to hope"
• "I have a dream that... I have a dream that... I have a dream that..."
• "We shall fight in the fields, we shall fight in the streets, we shall fight in the hills"

33. Epistrophe

Epistrophe repeats the same word or phrase at the end of successive lines or clauses. It's the opposite of anaphora, creating a different kind of rhythm. The repetition provides closure to each statement while linking them together.

Epistrophe can create a sense of inevitability or certainty. The repeated ending feels like driving home a point repeatedly until it cannot be denied or forgotten.

Examples:

• "Government of the people, by the people, for the people"
• "When I was young, I spoke as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child"
• "See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil"

34. Parallelism

Parallelism uses similar grammatical structures in related phrases, clauses, or sentences. This creates balance, rhythm, and emphasis. The similar structure makes the relationship between ideas clear and memorable.

Strong parallelism satisfies our sense of pattern and balance. It makes prose feel more polished and poetic. In arguments, parallel structure strengthens logical connections between points.

Examples:

• "Easy come, easy go"
• "To love is to suffer; to avoid suffering is to avoid love"
• "Like father, like son"

35. Chiasmus

Chiasmus reverses parallel structures, creating an AB-BA pattern. The reversed structure creates surprise and emphasizes the relationship between ideas through contrast. It's memorable because it plays with our expectations of parallelism.

Chiasmus often expresses profound relationships between concepts. The reversal suggests that ideas are related but not identical, connected but in complex ways.

Examples:

• "Ask not what your country can do for you - ask what you can do for your country"
• "When the going gets tough, the tough get going"
• "Fair is foul, and foul is fair"

Tone and Attitude Devices

36. Sarcasm

Sarcasm uses words to convey contempt or mockery, often by saying the opposite of what is meant. It's more biting than simple irony, intended to wound or criticize. The speaker's tone makes the real meaning clear.

Identifying sarcasm requires understanding context and tone. Written sarcasm can be ambiguous without vocal cues. Characters using sarcasm reveal anger, frustration, or superiority. Sarcasm creates distance between speaker and subject.

Examples:

• Saying "Oh, brilliant idea!" when someone suggests something obviously foolish
• "How nice of you to grace us with your presence" to someone hours late
• "Sure, NEPA is so reliable" when power fails for the fifth time that day

37. Satire

Satire uses humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to criticize or expose folly, especially in politics, social issues, or human behavior. Satire has a purpose beyond entertainment - it seeks to provoke thought and possibly change.

Good satire makes us laugh while making us uncomfortable about what we're laughing at. It exaggerates reality to reveal truth. In exam passages, identify what is being satirized and explain how the satirical techniques work.

Examples:

• A story where corrupt politicians are depicted as pigs feeding at a trough
• A play showing students cheating their way through university while lecturers look away
• A poem describing how election results are "cooked" like jollof rice

38. Tone

Tone is the author's or speaker's attitude toward the subject or audience, conveyed through word choice, sentence structure, and other stylistic elements. Tone affects how readers feel and respond to the text.

Identifying tone requires reading carefully for word choice and overall impression. Common tones include serious, playful, angry, sad, sarcastic, formal, informal, optimistic, pessimistic. Tone can shift within a work.

Examples:

• Formal, respectful tone in an official letter to a principal
• Light, playful tone in a children's story about animals
• Bitter, angry tone in a poem about injustice and oppression

39. Mood

Mood is the atmosphere or emotional feeling a work creates in the reader. While tone is the author's attitude, mood is the reader's emotional response. Setting, word choice, and pacing all contribute to mood.

Describing mood requires emotional vocabulary. Think about what feeling dominates as you read. Mood can support or contrast with events. A cheerful mood during tragic events creates irony; a dark mood during happy events creates tension.

Examples:

• Tense, frightening mood in a scene where characters are being hunted
• Peaceful, calm mood in a description of evening in a village
• Chaotic, overwhelming mood in a depiction of Lagos traffic

Dramatic and Narrative Devices

40. Dramatic Irony

Dramatic irony occurs when the audience knows something important that characters don't know. This creates tension, suspense, or humor as we watch characters act without crucial information we possess.

This device makes audiences feel connected to the story while separated from characters. We want to warn them or watch to see what happens when they discover the truth. Dramatic irony increases emotional investment.

Examples:

• We know the villain is hiding in the closet, but the protagonist doesn't
• The audience knows two characters are long-lost siblings before they discover it
• Readers know a character is being deceived by a supposed friend

41. Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing plants hints or clues about future events. It creates anticipation and makes later events feel inevitable rather than random. Good foreshadowing is subtle enough to miss on first reading but obvious when looking back.

Writers foreshadow through imagery, dialogue, events, or descriptions. Heavy-handed foreshadowing spoils surprises; too-subtle foreshadowing fails to create anticipation. The balance creates satisfying narrative structure.

Examples:

• Mentioning a character's weak heart before they later suffer a heart attack
• Dark storm clouds gathering as characters make fateful decisions
• A gun displayed prominently in Act One that will be fired in Act Three

42. Flashback

Flashback interrupts the present narrative to show events from the past. This provides background, reveals character history, or explains present situations. Flashbacks can be brief memories or extended scenes.

Effective flashbacks connect meaningfully to present action. They shouldn't feel like random interruptions but rather necessary information revealed at the right moment. Writers use various techniques to signal flashbacks - verb tense changes, typographical markers, or explicit statements.

Examples:

• A character remembering childhood while visiting their old school
• A novel beginning with the ending, then flashing back to show how events unfolded
• A character's dream revealing traumatic past events

43. Soliloquy

Soliloquy occurs when a character speaks thoughts aloud while alone on stage. The audience hears but other characters don't. This reveals inner thoughts, motivations, or conflicts that characters cannot express to others.

Soliloquies provide direct access to character psychology. They're common in classical drama but appear in modern works too. The convention requires audience acceptance that characters speak extensive thoughts aloud when alone.

Examples:

• Hamlet's "To be or not to be" speech contemplating life and death
• A character debating whether to commit a crime, weighing consequences
• A ruler alone on stage revealing doubts about decisions

44. Aside

An aside is a brief comment a character makes to the audience that other characters supposedly don't hear. It creates intimacy between character and audience while revealing thoughts hidden from other characters.

Asides are shorter than soliloquies and occur during interaction with others. They often provide commentary on what's happening or reveal a character's true feelings. The convention requires other characters to act as if they heard nothing.

Examples:

• A character muttering "If only you knew the truth" while smiling at another
• A servant commenting to the audience about their master's foolishness
• A character revealing their plan while pretending to agree with others

45. Monologue

A monologue is an extended speech by one character, addressed to other characters. Unlike soliloquy, the speaker has an audience within the play. Monologues reveal character, advance plot, or provide exposition.

Effective monologues sound natural despite their length. They can be persuasive speeches, storytelling, confessions, or explanations. The speaker's purpose and audience affect the monologue's style and content.

Examples:

• A character telling the story of their past to explain present actions
• A lawyer making a lengthy argument in court
• A character explaining their philosophy or beliefs to others

Word Play and Multiple Meaning Devices

46. Pun

A pun plays on words that sound alike or have multiple meanings. Puns can be clever and funny, or groan-inducing and obvious. They show linguistic creativity and often add humor, though they can also make serious points.

Good puns require understanding multiple meanings or sound similarities. Some languages allow better puns than others. In literature, puns can reveal character wit or create thematic connections through word play.

Examples:

• "I used to be a banker but I lost interest" (interest = attention and bank profit)
• "The mathematician's garden had square roots" (roots = plant roots and mathematical concept)
• "Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana" (flies = moves quickly and insects)

47. Ambiguity

Ambiguity occurs when language has two or more possible meanings. Unlike puns which are usually playful, ambiguity can be serious. Writers sometimes deliberately create ambiguity to enrich meaning or reflect life's complexity.

Not all ambiguity is intentional or positive. Unclear writing creates unwanted ambiguity. But deliberate ambiguity makes readers think and allows multiple valid interpretations. It acknowledges that truth is often complex.

Examples:

• "Nothing is better than eternal happiness. A ham sandwich is better than nothing. Therefore, a ham sandwich is better than eternal happiness." (logical ambiguity)
• "She told her mother she was wrong" (who was wrong - she or her mother?)
• "Visiting relatives can be boring" (is it boring to visit them or boring when they visit?)

48. Double Entendre

Double entendre uses language that can be understood in two ways, with one meaning usually being risqué or suggestive. It allows writers to imply things without stating them directly. The surface meaning is innocent while the second meaning is not.

This device appears in comedy, satire, and anywhere writers want to suggest without explicitly stating. It requires cultural knowledge to catch the second meaning. Characters using double entendre appear clever or flirtatious.

Examples:

• Using "knowing someone in the biblical sense" to mean intimacy
• Describing someone as "well-endowed" with multiple possible meanings
• References to "spending the night" that carry implications

49. Connotation and Denotation

Denotation is a word's literal, dictionary definition. Connotation includes emotional associations and cultural meanings beyond the literal. The same denotation can have different connotations - " slim" and "skinny" both mean thin, but "slim" has positive connotations while "skinny" can be negative.

Understanding connotation is crucial for analyzing literature. Writers choose words carefully for their emotional impact, not just their definitions. Two words with similar denotations can create completely different effects based on their connotations.

Examples:

• "Childish" vs "childlike" (both mean like a child, but childish is negative, childlike is positive)
• "Pushy" vs "assertive" (both mean forceful, but pushy criticizes while assertive respects)
• "Cheap" vs "affordable" (both mean inexpensive, but cheap suggests poor quality)

50. Antanaclasis

Antanaclasis repeats a word but with different meanings each time. This creates clever wordplay and often makes memorable statements. The same word appears twice or more, but context gives it different meanings.

This device is less common than puns but more sophisticated. It requires the repeated word to genuinely have multiple meanings used in the same sentence or nearby sentences. The repetition draws attention to the shifting meaning.

Examples:

• "If we don't hang together, we shall surely hang separately" (hang = unite, and hang = be executed)
• "Your argument is sound, nothing but sound" (sound = valid, and sound = mere noise)
• "We must learn to live together or we will die alone" (alone = isolated, and alone = only)

Putting It All Together for Your Exams

Now that you've gone through all 50 devices, let's talk about how to actually use this knowledge in WAEC, NECO, JAMB, and JUPEB exams.

Identification Tips:
First, read the passage carefully. Don't rush to identify devices. Understand what's happening, who's speaking, and what mood or tone dominates. Literary devices serve the meaning - they're not just decorations.

Look for patterns. Sound devices create patterns you can often hear when you read aloud. Comparison devices make connections between unlike things. Contrast devices show oppositions. Structural devices create repetition or balance.

Common Mistakes to Avoid:
Many students confuse simile and metaphor. Remember - simile uses "like" or "as," metaphor doesn't. Both compare, but differently.

Don't call everything personification. Only non-human things getting human qualities count as personification. A person acting isn't personification, no matter how they act.

Irony isn't just bad luck or unfortunate coincidence. True irony involves expectations reversed or meanings inverted. If something merely sad or unlucky happens, that's not necessarily ironic.

Exam Strategy:
When asked to identify literary devices, give specific examples from the text. Don't just say "the poet uses metaphor" - quote the actual metaphor and explain what is being compared to what.

Explain the effect or purpose. Why did the writer use this device? What does it add to meaning, mood, or characterization? This shows deeper understanding than mere identification.

For JAMB multiple choice questions, eliminate obviously wrong answers first. Often two answers will be close - choose the more specific or accurate one.

Practice Makes Perfect:
Read Nigerian literature with these devices in mind. Works by Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, Chimamanda Adichie, and others use these devices extensively. Try to spot them while reading for pleasure.

Practice with past questions. WAEC and JAMB often repeat question types. Understanding how questions are asked helps you prepare better answers.

Form study groups. Teaching others helps cement your own understanding. Quiz each other on identifying devices in passages.

Final Thoughts

Literary devices aren't just academic exercises - they're tools writers use to make their work more powerful, beautiful, and meaningful. Understanding these devices helps you appreciate literature more deeply and express yourself more effectively.

Don't try to memorize all 50 definitions the night before your exam. Study them gradually, with examples. The more you practice identifying them in actual texts, the more natural recognition becomes.

Remember that context matters. The same technique can create different effects in different situations. A metaphor can be beautiful in poetry but confusing in technical writing. Hyperbole can be funny or tragic depending on tone.

Most importantly, these devices work together. Writers layer multiple devices in single passages. You might find alliteration creating rhythm while metaphor creates meaning while tone creates mood. Good literary analysis recognizes how devices combine.

Your literature exams test not just identification but understanding. They want to know you can explain why a device matters, what it contributes, how it affects readers. Move beyond simple naming to thoughtful analysis.

With this foundation in 50 essential literary devices, you have the tools to tackle any WAEC, NECO, JAMB, or JUPEB, even higher institutions exam like Uniuyo literature question confidently. I believe now, you have changed from thinking that everything is personification or metaphor.

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