Welcome back to FreshNote – your distinguished Uniblog
Last week, we explored the Fundamentals of Computer Studies, and as promised, we continue our academic journey by breaking down another essential course: GST 222 or GST 202 – Fundamentals of Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution. Practice questions on GST 222/ 202 using CBT
Comprehensive Study Guide for Examinations: let's dive into it
MODULE 1: BASIC UNDERSTANDING OF CONFLICT
1.1 Definition, Causes and Types of Conflict.
Historical Background and Conceptual Definition
Etymology and Basic Definition:
Derived from Latin "confligere" meaning "to strike together"
Webster Dictionary: fight, struggle, battle, clash, contention, confrontation, controversy, active opposition
Contradiction arising from differences in interests, ideas, ideologies, orientations, beliefs, perceptions, and tendencies
Scholarly Definitions:
Quincy Wright (1990): "Opposition among social entities directed against one another"
Distinguished from competition (opposition among entities striving for inadequate resources)
Key insight: Conflict is not inevitable, only competition can be so regarded
Kriesberg (1973): "A relationship between two or more parties who believe they have incompatible goals"
Stagner: "A situation in which two or more human beings desire goals which they perceive as being obtainable by one or the other, but not both"
Ross (1993): Views conflict as natural mechanism for bringing about needed change
Causes of Conflict (Four Categories)
1. Conflicts over Resources
Competition for inadequate resources (land, money, vehicles, company ownership)
Examples: Umuleri-Aguleri conflict (land), Ekpan-Ubeji conflict (refinery land), Niger Delta oil conflicts
Easier to identify and potentially resolve
Links to Marxian theory: unequal distribution creates conflict between dominant and subordinate segments
2. Conflicts over Psychological Needs
Self-actualization, respect, group identity projection
Based on Maslow's hierarchy: when one need is satisfied, drive moves to unsatisfied needs
Examples: structural factors, politics, personality clashes, ethnicity
Cannot be seen but affect individual and group psyche
3. Conflicts Involving Values
Religious beliefs, ideological positions, worldviews
Most difficult to resolve - people may die for beliefs
Cultural iceberg concept: "internal culture" below waterline difficult to change
Examples: Cold War, Maitatsine crisis (1980), Bonnke crisis (1991), Beauty Pageant crisis (2002), Danish cartoon crisis (2005), Boko Haram
4. Conflicts over Information
Manipulation of information systems
Can be constructive or manipulative
Fed through lies or right information at wrong time
Media role crucial in shaping opinion
Communication barriers: physical distance, language, value judgments
Types of Conflict
By Scale:
Intra-Personal: Within individual (time use, partner choice, moral questions)
Inter-Personal: Between individuals
Intra-Group: Within groups or factions
Inter-Group: Between different groups (class vs. class, family vs. family)
National: Within nation (interethnic, inter-religious, resource competition)
International: Between nations (ideological, territorial, political competition)
Classification of Conflict
1. By Violence Level (Gurr and Wright):
Ordinary conflict: Small-scale violence at individual/group levels
War: Armed forces involvement, violence of considerable magnitude
Conflicts differ in degree rather than kind (continuum approach)
2. By Structure:
Structural conflicts: Endemic, predisposed by polity character
Result from unjust, repressive, oppressive socio-political structures
Include inequality in access to socio-economic and political privileges
Non-structural conflicts: Specific policies or actions, generally shorter duration
3. By Party Character:
Ethnic conflicts: Based on identity, attract strong loyalties
Religious conflicts: Based on faith and belief systems
Class conflicts: Based on economic status and social position
1.2 Conflict Theories
Sociological Perspectives
Karl Marx Theory:
Core premise: Inequality in resource distribution generates conflict
Key propositions:
Greater inequality → greater conflict of interest between dominant and subordinate
Subordinates become aware of collective interests when:
Changes disrupt existing relations
Dominant practices create "alienative dispositions"
Communication among subordinates increases
Educational opportunities expand
Awareness leads to overt conflict against dominant segments
Ideological unification and political leadership increase polarization
More polarization → more violent conflict → greater structural change
Max Weber Theory:
Emphasizes role of "charismatic leaders" in mobilizing subordinates
Subordinates pursue conflict when:
They withdraw legitimacy from political authority
Correlation among class, status, political hierarchies is high
Resource distribution discontinuity is high
Social mobility is low
Successful charismatic leaders create pressure to routinize authority
Dahrendorf Conflict Model:
Views conflict as necessary for achieving social goals
Distinguishes endogenous (internal) and exogenous (external) conflicts
Key assumptions:
Imperatively coordinated groups create quasi-groups with opposite interests
Bearers organize into groups with manifest interests
Interest groups are in constant conflict over status quo
Conflict leads to structural changes in social relations
Pluralist Perspective:
Views conflict as constructive contribution to healthy order
Given appropriate institutions, conflict resolves discontent and clarifies power relations
Emphasizes continuous negotiation, concession, and compromise
Rejects notion of final authority, believes in multiple pressure groups
Structural-Functional Theory (Talcott Parsons):
Individuals adjust to given organizational structures
Structural changes cause conflict and destability
Views conflict as dysfunctional, abnormal, disease-like
Focuses on maintaining equilibrium and collaboration
Cultural and Social Theories
Ethnicity and Conflict:
Instrumentalist view: Ethnicity is consciously crafted ideological creation
Ethnic conflicts result from elite manipulation for personal ambitions
Definitions:
Thomson: "Community with common identity and fate based on origin, kinship, traditions, cultural uniqueness"
Toland: "Sense of peoplehood held by group sharing common culture and history"
Ethnic identity has symbolic dimension making conflicts more intense
Culture and Conflict:
External culture: Explicitly learned, conscious, easily changed (music, food, dress)
Internal culture: Implicitly learned, difficult to change (beliefs, values, thought patterns)
Hofstede's dimensions:
Power distance: Acceptance of inequality
Individualism vs. Collectivism: Individual vs. group orientation
Role Theories (Turner):
Roles as comprehensive ways of coping with others
Role as Interactive Framework:
Interaction depends on role identification
Roles form as complements to others
Stabilized roles become legitimate expectations
1.3 Phases in Conflict
Stages of Conflict
Two Key Variables:
Opportunity: Available resources (money, people, arms, organization, external support)
Willingness: Desire/need to act regardless of consequences
Six Stages:
A. Formation Stage
Problems emerge, previously ignored issues become serious
Antagonistic shifts in attitude and behavior
Early warning signs appear
Need immediate attention to prevent escalation
B. Escalation Stage
Formation of enemy images
People take sides, positions harden
Communication stops, perceptions distort
Resources committed to defend positions
Leaders make inflammatory statements
Street demonstrations intensify
C. Crisis Stage (Violent Crisis)
Physical barricades to demarcate territories
Direct confrontation and violence eruption
Stockpiled weapons freely used
Law and order breakdown
Essential services disrupted
People experience discomfort from lack of basic needs
D. De-escalation Stage
Gradual cessation of hostility
Caused by conflict weariness, hunger, sanctions, external intervention
Beginning of rational thinking
E. Improvement Stage
Stakeholders rethink positions
Need for dialogue recognized
Efforts toward relative peace
Shift from confrontation to cooperation
F. Transformation Stage
All conflict causes removed
Reconciliation achieved
Most difficult but most desirable stage
Sustainable peace established
Conflict Cycle (Seven Phases)
i. Latent Phase
Conflict dormant, barely expressed
Parties may not be conscious of conflicting interests
Difficult to detect but preventive action most effective
Indicators: inequality, poverty, frustrated expectations, unemployment
ii. Manifest Phase
Conflicting parties express demands openly but legally
Easier to identify problems and stakeholders
Preventive action still possible
Mediation efforts have reasonable success chance
iii. Violent Phase
Direct physical attacks and confrontations
Blood spilling, life loss
Creates additional motives for struggle continuation
Original leadership may be usurped
iv. Escalation Phase
Violence breeds further violence
Longer struggle = higher stakes for leaders
Only victory can justify preceding bloodshed
Little scope for peaceful intervention
v. Contained Phase
Escalation halts due to resource exhaustion
Hope for negotiations and mediation
Peacekeeping forces can be introduced
Humanitarian aid becomes possible
vi. Mitigated Phase
Basic causes remain but behavior changes
Less violence, more political mobilization
External actors gain new leverage
Ray of post-conflict recovery visible
vii. Resolution Phase
Most critical stage determining future
Must address underlying causes and immediate consequences
Requires reordering power relationships
Need for trial of perpetrators and reconciliation
Conflict Energy
Negative Energy (Suppressed Conflict):
Societies in pain
Wounding, deaths, destruction
Bad leadership and followership
Divided nations/cities
Crime increase
Poor infrastructure
Lack of compassion
Positive Energy (Peace):
Less stressed individuals
Cohesive families
Peaceful environment
Development and progress
Better informed citizenry
Good governance
Vibrant political institutions
Cohesive nations
1.4 Conflict Analysis
Definition and Importance
Conflict Analysis: Critical review, interpretation, and explanation of conflict situations through various mechanisms for proper understanding from multiple perspectives.
Benefits for Interveners:
Develop mediation plans meeting specific situation requirements
Avoid inappropriate conflict resolution procedures
Operate from accurate information base
Clarify important issues and interests
Identify key people and relationship dynamics
Categories of Stakeholders
A. Primary Stakeholders
Goals are incompatible
Interact directly in pursuit of respective goals
Direct investors in conflict
B. Secondary Stakeholders
Affected directly by outcomes
Don't feel directly involved
May become primary as conflict progresses
C. Interested Stakeholders
Have interest in conflict outcomes
Stand to benefit from peaceful or conflictual outcomes
Suffer no direct short/medium-term impact
Criteria for Determining Primary Stakeholders
1. Functional
Those who directly wage conflict
Legitimacy based on capacity to perpetuate conflict
Embodiment of the conflict
2. Representativity
Represent large numbers of affected people
Have means to wage conflict or build peace
Political aspect of categorization
3. Moral Authority
Carry vision of post-conflict society
Include religious leaders, civil society, traditional leaders
Previously confined to secondary level
Pre-Intervention Conflict Analysis Framework
1. History of Conflict
Significant past events between parties
Pattern of relationships
Previous disputes and resolution attempts
Recent changes in relationships
Why past efforts failed
2. Context of Conflict
Current resolution attempts by parties
Physical environment assessment
Social, economic, political environment
External situation dimensions
Communication and decision-making patterns
3. Primary Parties
Identification of all parties involved
Positions and underlying interests
Values and perceptions of other parties
Settlement authority assessment
Shared interests, goals, needs
4. Power Relations
Ability to influence or control events
Forms: physical strength, status, resource control, persuasion, ally support
Hard power: Associated with violent conflict
Soft power: Associated with positive conflict
Balance of power assessment
Power sources and consequences of use
5. Other Parties/Stakeholders
Secondary parties identification
Shadow parties (hidden identities, supply resources)
Roles in conflict
Alignment with primary parties or neutrality
Involvement possibilities in peace processes
6. Issues
Primary issues as identified by parties
Hidden or secondary issues
Intervention procedures needed
Genuine conflict vs. symptom of other conflicts
Time and effort requirements for resolution
7. Immediate Situation
Current happenings assessment
Violence reduction vs. negotiation needs
Most effective conflict management strategy
Urgency and demand evaluation
8. Stages of Conflict
Escalation vs. stabilization assessment
Escalation indicators: specific to general issues, increased resources, antagonism, power increase, polarization, extremist leadership, communication distortion, propaganda
Stabilization indicators: safety mechanisms, escalation fear, value agreements, social bonds, external threats, resource limitations
9. Timing
Actual right time for intervention
Most profitable intervention timing
Beneficiary identification from immediate intervention
10. Possible Options
Parties' knowledge of alternatives
Awareness of each other's alternatives
Efforts made to accomplish options
Realistic nature evaluation
Conflict Mapping and Tracking
Conflict Mapping Definition:
Graphical representation of conflict
Parties placed in relation to situation
Used for various purposes: understanding, power assessment, strategy development
Conflict Tracking Definition:
Process of monitoring, observing, recording trends
Focus areas: conflict parties, leadership struggles, military success prospects, population support, goal redefinition, settlement suggestions
Mapping Conventions:
Circles indicate parties (size shows power relations)
Straight lines indicate direct relationships
Double lines indicate alliances
Dotted lines indicate weak/intermittent relationships
Arrows show predominant influence direction
Lightning lines indicate discord/conflict
Double lines across indicate broken relationships
Squares/rectangles indicate issues/topics
Shadows show external influential parties
Conflict Analytical Tools
A. Timeline
Events plotted against time scale
Shows different historical views
Clarifies each side's event perceptions
Identifies most important events for each side
Chronological order listing
B. ABC Triangle Method
A (Attitude): Willingness to change, fixed positions
B (Behavior): Agitation, demands, pleas, violence
C (Context): Background environment
Separate triangles for each major stakeholder
Identifies needs and fears from each viewpoint
C. Onion/Doughnut Method
Outer layer: Positions (what parties want)
Middle layer: Interests (what parties want to achieve)
Core layer: Needs (most important needs to be satisfied)
Analysis for each party involved
Shows progression from visible positions to hidden needs
D. Force Field Analysis
Identifies positive and negative forces
Driving forces: Support desired change
Restraining forces: Hinder desired change
Arrow length/thickness indicates force strength
Helps assess what maintains status quo
E. PPP Model
People: Individuals and groups involved, affected populations, leadership structures, group views and feelings, perception discrepancies, communication connections
Process: Sparking issues, historical patterns, preferred processes, emerging problems, polarization degree, intensifying activities, moderate roles
Problem: Interests/needs/values, proposals for meeting them, shared basic needs, minimal acceptable outcomes, agreement/disagreement areas, available resources, conflict stage/ripeness
F. DPT Model
D (Diagnosis): Investigating history of "sickness"
P (Progress): Present state and future possibilities
T (Therapy): Prescription or treatment
Based on premise that conflict is societal "sickness"
Requires proper diagnosis before treatment
G. Pillars Analysis
Unstable situation shown as inverted triangle
"Pillars" on sides represent supporting factors
Strategies developed to weaken/remove pillars
Aims to topple negative situations
Replace with positive stable situations
1.5 Conflict Transformation
Conceptual Overview
Definition (International Alert):
Approach recognizing grievances, needs, issues of all parties. Focuses on processes by which conflict develops into violence rather than exclusively on quick ceasefire. Addresses structural reality of inequality, rights, injustice. Offers alternative ways of addressing these matters. Transforms conflict from violence and destruction into constructive force for social change.
Key Characteristics:
Integrative conflict resolution orientation
Focuses on transformation of whole conflict environment
Pays attention to conflict developmental stages/processes
Seeks involvement of all stakeholders including ex-combatants
Goes beyond conflict management and resolution
Conflict Transformation vs. Other Approaches
Conflict Resolution:
Suggests conflict is destructive like fire
Implies conflict can be handled decisively once and for all
Quick elimination focus
Conflict Management:
Correctly identifies protracted nature
Implies people can be manipulated like objects
Goal is mitigation/control without addressing root sources
Conflict Transformation:
Emphasizes broader, deeper understanding
Stresses dynamic nature of conflicts
Addresses cause-and-effect relationships
Focuses on improving relationships and social structures
Gandhi Theory of Conflict Transformation
Non-Violence Approach:
Vehemently intolerant of structural or direct violence
Struggle against both forms of violence
Admonition not to use violence in struggle
"There is no way to peace; peace is the way"
Rejects protective devices that contradict non-violence
Lederach's Transformation Approach
Requirements for Effectiveness:
Multi-level participation: All social levels from top decision makers to grassroots
Empower underdogs: Create more equal relationships
Local control: Those involved control transformation processes
Address traumas: Long-standing traumas and past injustices
Appropriate intermediaries: Understanding culture and social structures
Co-create understanding: New conflict understanding and prevention
Maintain changes: Procedures for continuing changes and preventing future conflicts
Mutual education: About socio-political systems and conflict dynamics
Types of Transformation
1. Issue Transformation
Change in political agenda of conflict
Downplay original conflict issues
Emphasize shared concern for new issues
Make discordant tunes less salient
Expand agenda rather than restrict it
Address underlying interests, needs, values
Key Concepts:
Interests: What people want (usually material, negotiable)
Needs: Immaterial things (security, identity, recognition) - non-negotiable, inextricably linked
Values: Fundamental beliefs (non-negotiable, characteristic of social communities)
2. Rule Transformation
Redefine norms for mutual interactions
Rules dependent on actor position and relative power
Can have independent impact on inter-actor relations
Change rules operating in conflict setting
Meet needs of parties to reduce violent confrontation
Conditions for Rule Transformation:
Disappearance of legitimate authority institutions
Law and order breakdown
Need for third-party diplomatic effort
Examples: Lebanon (1975-1989), Somalia (post-1988), Liberia (post-1990)
3. Structural Transformation
Distinguishing feature of conflict transformation
Addresses social conditions fostering violent conflict
Requires analysis and initiation of structural change
Institution building and civil society strengthening
Political Structural Changes:
Election reform, judicial reform
Power sharing initiatives
Constitutional reform
Political party building
Human rights monitoring mechanisms
Rule of law establishment
Economic Structural Changes:
Economic development programs
Healthcare assistance, land reform
Social safety nets
Agricultural productivity programs
Micro and macro-level interventions
Galtung's Structural Conflict Approach:
Confrontation: Select central issue, express desired outcome
Struggle: Non-violent methodology implementation
Decoupling: Build autonomy and self-reliance in masses
Recoupling: Reintegrate through horizontal structures based on human rights
4. Actor Transformation
Changes at individual level crucial
Strengthen capacity for situation analysis
Improve sense of empowerment/self-determination
Enhance abilities for recognition/responsiveness
Individual Level Benefits:
Empowerment: Restoration of consciousness of value and strength
Recognition: Reawakening of acknowledgement and empathy
Help define problems and goals in own terms
Personal decision-making on dispute settlement
Marshall own resources for problem-solving
Broader Level Requirements:
Promote natural empathy between parties
Shared responsibility for conflict origins
Eliminate sense of helplessness
Increase sense of empowerment
Improve framing and understanding of issues
Acknowledge legitimacy of other party
Recognize need for trust building
Accept need for structural change
Personal and Group Transformation:
Harness positive changes in every person
Reciprocal respect development
Correct misrepresentations and mistrust
Willingness to reach settlement
Open-mindedness about reconciliation
Embrace forgiveness idea
Start anew with former adversaries
MODULE 2: DYNAMICS OF CONFLICT
2.1 Relationship between Perception and Conflict
Perception and Conflict Framework
Perception Characteristics Framework:
1. Perception and Environment
Way person perceives environment determines reaction
Friendly environment → less aggressive behavior
Threatening environment → defensive mechanisms and aggressive behaviors
2. Perceptual Process and Meanings
Process: Receiving information (inputs) → Selection/interpretation (organization) → Actions/reactions (outputs)
Conflict can result from incomplete inputs or incorrect processing
Stereotypes prevent detailed information acquisition
3. Transition from Perception to Action
Time lapse between perception and response affects outcomes
Quick responses based on stereotypes lead to aggressive behavior
Sufficient time for scrutiny reduces aggressive behavior likelihood
4. Perception and Cognition
Relationship between received information and acquired knowledge
Inadequate processing leads to poor understanding and treatment
Careful understanding reduces conflict potential
5. Perception and Needs Satisfaction
Perceiving others as threats to need satisfaction leads to aggression
No perceived threat leads to responsible behavior
Causes of Conflict Framework
1. Perception and Common Resources
Most direct relationship to determine
Particularly relevant when resources are scarce/exhaustible
Group perceiving access blockage becomes highly aggressive
Examples: Umuleri-Aguleri (land), Ekpan-Ubeji (refinery land), Warri conflicts, Ife-Modakeke, Tiv-Jukun, Niger Delta oil conflicts
2. Perception and Values
Wrong perception of other groups' values causes conflict
Most difficult conflicts to appreciate and settle
Values are system of beliefs not ready to compromise
Groups defend positions with full might when values involved
Individuals react aggressively to value misperceptions
3. Perception and Psychological Needs
Wrong perception of social psychological requirements invites conflict
Examples: large family importance, war hero exploits, gender roles, male children celebration
Criticizing psychological values attracts aggressive behavior
Barriers to Social Perception
1. Selective Perception
Filter information to support own viewpoint
Leave out threatening or uncomfortable information
Example: Manager overlooking negative reports due to positive performance
2. Stereotyping
Generalization about group of people
Helps decrease information to workable level
Can be accurate but mostly harmful when incorrect
Example: attractiveness stereotypes (sensitive, warm, sociable)
3. First Impression Error
Long-lasting impressions based on initial perceptions
Easy to maintain in mind
Error from observing small part and generalizing
4. Implicit Personality Theories
Inaccurate "mini-theories" for determining appearances/behaviors
Help structure thoughts and create shortcuts
Group traits into clusters that seem to go together
Barriers to admitting new information
5. Self-fulfilling Prophecies
How expectations affect interactions and outcomes
Known as Pygmalion effect
Expectations influence achievement of desired outcomes
2.2 Language Barriers in Conflict and Resolution
Language-Based Barriers
Nigeria Context: Over 450 different languages in daily use, including dialects in various regions.
1. Bypassing (Meaning Misunderstood)
What is said vs. what is heard differs
False belief that words have only one meaning
Words acquire multiple meanings due to:
Changes over time
Different cultural/regional usage
User knowledge and situation variations
Reducing Bypassing:
Be approachable: Encourage open communication
Be person-minded: Consider person using words, not just word meanings
Query and paraphrase: Ask questions and restate messages
Be sensitive to contexts: Consider verbal and situational contexts
2. Indiscrimination (Language Shapes Attitudes)
Neglect of individual differences
Overemphasis of similarities
Language role in seeing similarities where none exist
Categorizing nouns encourage focus on similarities
Results in stereotyping
Reducing Indiscrimination:
Indexing: Point out differences distinguishing group members
Identify specific persons, ideas, events, objects
Question generalizations about categories
3. Polarization (Language Causes Extremes)
Tendency to view things in extremes
Some things exist between extremes
Pendulum Effect: Escalation to opposite extremes
Emotions run high, differences seem insurmountable
Example: Roommate cleaning argument escalating to move-out threats
4. Sexist Language
Men vs. women language use differences
Men: Assert status, dominate, compete
Women: Establish relationships, maintain social connections
English language inherent bias favoring men
No singular gender-neutral pronouns
Traditional masculine pronoun usage for general reference
Problems with Sexist Language:
Creates expectations discriminating against women
Suggests men hold important roles, women don't
Can be misleading in health/safety contexts
Perpetuates stereotypes
Effective Language Use
1. Use Accurate Language
Critical for effective communication
Wrong words distort messages and undermine credibility
Constantly ask "What do I want to say?" and "What do I mean?"
Expand vocabulary through listening and reading
Avoid unnecessary complex words
2. Use Vivid Language
Make messages animated and interesting
Direct, fresh language in active voice
Creates excitement, urgency, forcefulness
More persuasive than flat presentations
More memorable and emotionally impactful
Example: Statistics vs. individual stories for homeless fundraising
3. Use Immediate Language
Identifies and projects speaker's feelings
Makes message more relevant to listener
Draws listeners in and involves them
Immediacy levels: "We will enjoy" (high) to "People often enjoy" (low)
Makes speaker appear relaxed, confident, competent
4. Use Appropriate Language
Match expectations for specific situations
Formal vs. informal language contexts
Different situations require different language types
Inappropriate language damages credibility
Assess each speaking situation and adjust accordingly
5. Use Metaphorical Language
Fundamentally metaphorical worldview
Help structure thinking, perception, actions
Figure of speech relating uncommon objects/ideas
Makes objects/ideas more clear and vivid
Culture-bound with meanings within specific language communities
2.3 Early Warning and Early Response Mechanism
Early Warning (EW) Definitions and Importance
Multiple Definitions:
Warning at early stage of events with negative consequences
Collection, analysis, communication of relevant evidence to policy-makers
Systematic collection and analysis from crisis areas for: anticipating escalation, developing strategic responses, presenting options for decision-making
Complex system of indicators predicting crisis probability
Proactive process with institutional networks for systematic information collection
Benefits/Importance:
Crisis and disaster protection mechanism
Promotes public-private partnerships
Supports local-level services enhancing development
Advances community participation
Increases scientific knowledge application
Improved environmental management
Reveals conflict causes
Enables continuous monitoring of potentially violent conflicts
Creates national, regional, international momentum for action
Early Response (ER) Definition
Definition: Any initiative in latent stages of perceived potential armed conflict/disaster aimed at reduction, resolution, or transformation.
UN General Assembly Definition: Process of using early warning information to design action preventing violent conflict through policy or program development.
Key Requirements:
Government/policy maker readiness to act fast
New, short, focused delivery to decision makers
Sustained attention by responsible organizations
Communication specialist assistance
Types of Early Warning
1. Conflict Early Warning
Aimed at preventing impending conflict
Any form preventable if acted upon quickly
2. Disaster Early Warning
Preventing/minimizing natural disasters
Inevitable events like earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, climate change
3. Hazards Assessment
Collection, analysis, communication of accident/calamity evidence
Advising authorities on rapid effective steps
Alleviating suffering/impact on victims
Early Warning Indicators
Definition: Things that point to given conditions. Devices exhibiting current conditions. Include display, index, gauge, synopsis, symbol.
Types of Indicators:
1. Economic Indicators
Information on potential shortages
Production problems
Currency devaluation
Fiscal and revenue policies
Private sector issues
Consequences affecting large population proportions
2. Environmental Indicators
Health hazards and arable land pillage
Ecological and marine problems
Gully erosions, environmental pollution
Oil spillage, solid mineral excavation
Health hazards to indigenes
Impact on crops production, animal rearing, fish farming
3. Social Indicators
Unemployment and underemployment data
"Hungry man and idle hand is devil's workshop"
Jobless youth threats to society peace
Potential use by disgruntled elements for social vices
4. Political Indicators
Domestic political arena assessment
Fundamental human rights infringement
Political exclusion by ruling class
Unlawful arrest and detention
Killing of political rivals
Election rigging and manipulation
5. Security Indicators
Information on armed forces developments
Arms and ammunition proliferation
Military politicization and civilian militarization
Ethnic militias emergence
Military-civil society relationships
6. Individual Security/Safety
Crime and urban/rural violence assessment
Insurrection causes
Rural area militarization
Armed robbery, ritual killing
Police brutality at checkpoints
State inability to protect citizens
7. Rural Indicators
Grassroot level information gathering
Inter and intra communal strife monitoring
Border towns and villages conflicts
Media channels for maintaining tranquility
8. Educational Indicators
Quality decline despite standard increases
Poor educational funding
Low salary compared to other nations
Academic brain drain to western nations
Impact on younger and future generations
9. Demographic Indicators
Sudden demographic changes
People displacement
Increasing territoriality of groups/peoples
2.4 Arms Control and Demilitarization
Small Arms and Light Weapons Definitions
Small Arms: Weapons easily operated by individual meant to cause harm.
Light Weapons: Weapons with lethal effect operated by crew of two or three.
Types of Small Arms:
Revolvers and self-loading pistols
Rifles and carbines
Sub-machine guns
Assault rifles
Light machine guns
Categories of Light Weapons:
Heavy machine-guns
Hand-held under-barrel and mounted grenade launchers
Portable anti-aircraft guns
Portable launchers of anti-tank missile and rocket systems
Portable anti-tank guns and recoilless rifles
Portable launchers of anti-aircraft missile systems
Mortars of calibers less than 100mm
Ammunition and Explosives:
Cartridges (rounds) for small arms
Shells and missiles for light weapons
Anti-personnel and anti-tank grenades
Landmines
Mobile containers with missiles/shells
Explosives
Characteristics of Small Arms and Light Weapons
1. Simplicity and Durability
Few movable parts compared to major weapons
Extremely durable with little upkeep required
Minimal logistical support needed
2. Portability and Concealability
Carried by individuals or light vehicles
Easy transportation and smuggling
Concealment in legitimate cargo shipments
3. Military/Police and Civilian Uses
Legitimate uses for military and police
Legal holding by individuals for security
Major weapons generally military-only
4. Low Cost and Wide Availability
Abundant supply for military, police, civilian use
Relatively inexpensive compared to major systems
5. Lethality
Sophisticated rapid-fire capabilities
Widespread circulation among sub-state groups
Firepower matching/exceeding national police/military
Arms Race, Proliferation, and Control
Arms Race Definition: Situation where countries continually try to get more and better weapons than each other. Competition between nations for most powerful armaments.
Arms Proliferation: Easy availability of illicit small arms to unauthorized groups against those meant to be protected.
Causes of Arms Proliferation:
Undemocratic governance and electoral processes
Weak economic base in crisis countries
Uneven basic infrastructure distribution
Military coups and ethnic conflicts
Weak stockpile management
Post-colonial/Cold War remnants
Refugee movement and armed group domination
Failed states
GST 202: Full summary
Part 2: DYNAMICS OF CONFLICT (CONTINUED)
UNIT 4: ARMS CONTROL AND DEMILITARIZATION
Effects of Arms Proliferation
The widespread availability and distribution of weaponry creates numerous negative consequences that destabilize societies and undermine peace initiatives:
1. Perpetuation of Armed Violence
Small arms proliferation sustains ongoing conflicts by providing combatants with continued access to weapons
Violence begets further violence, creating cycles of retaliation and escalation
Communities become trapped in patterns of armed confrontation that are difficult to break
2. Threats to Peacekeeping Personnel
International peacekeepers face increased risks when operating in environments saturated with weapons
Humanitarian workers become targets, limiting aid delivery to affected populations
Mission effectiveness decreases as security concerns restrict operational capacity
3. Erosion of International Humanitarian Law
Easy access to weapons facilitates violations of laws governing armed conflict
Protection of civilians becomes nearly impossible when non-state actors possess sophisticated weaponry
Traditional distinctions between combatants and non-combatants blur
4. Government Destabilization
Legitimate but militarily weak governments struggle to maintain authority
State capacity to provide basic services deteriorates under pressure from armed groups
Democratic institutions become undermined by the prevalence of armed politics
5. Criminal Exploitation
Terrorist organizations benefit from unrestricted weapon flows
Organized crime syndicates use military-grade weapons to intimidate authorities
The boundary between political violence and criminal activity becomes unclear
6. Civilian Victimization
Non-combatant populations suffer disproportionately from armed violence
Basic safety and security disappear from daily life
Economic and social development becomes impossible under conditions of persistent insecurity
7. National Fragmentation
Weapons proliferation threatens the territorial integrity of nation-states
Social cohesion dissolves as different groups arm themselves
Peaceful coexistence among diverse populations becomes increasingly difficult to maintain
Arms Control Mechanisms
Arms control represents systematic efforts to regulate the development, production, stockpiling, proliferation, and usage of weapons through diplomatic agreements and international cooperation.
Definition and Scope
Arms control encompasses restrictions on weapons development and deployment, particularly focusing on weapons of mass destruction. Unlike complete disarmament, arms control accepts that military capabilities will continue to exist while seeking to manage and limit their most dangerous aspects.
Primary Objectives
Breaking cycles of mistrust and insecurity between nations
Establishing mutual security arrangements that benefit all participants
Maintaining strategic stability during crises and preventing arms racing
Reducing military expenditures and limiting collateral damage from conflicts
Historical Development
The concept emerged during the Cold War period (late 1940s-1991) as an alternative to failed disarmament efforts following World War I. Germany's rearmament despite enforced disarmament demonstrated that eliminating weapons alone could not prevent renewed aggression.
Nuclear Deterrence Theory
Arms control became essential with nuclear weapons development. The doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) assumed that nuclear-armed states would avoid first strikes due to guaranteed retaliation. This required maintaining controlled nuclear arsenals rather than complete elimination.
Advantages Over Disarmament
Suspicious or hostile nations can negotiate agreements without requiring complete trust
Verification is more feasible when managing existing arsenals rather than confirming total elimination
Strategic stability can be maintained while reducing overall threat levels
Demilitarization Processes
Demilitarization refers to comprehensive strategies for transitioning from armed conflict to sustainable peace through systematic removal of military capabilities and reintegration of former combatants into civilian society.
Core Components
1. Disarmament
The physical collection and destruction of weapons, ammunition, and military equipment from former combatants and civilian populations. This process includes:
Systematic weapons collection through voluntary surrender or mandatory confiscation
Proper documentation and inventory of collected materials
Safe storage and eventual destruction of dangerous items
Development of responsible arms management programs
2. Demobilization
The formal dissolution of armed groups and discharge of combatants from military service. Key elements include:
Official ceremonies marking the end of military service
Processing of combatant identification and documentation
Provision of temporary support during the transition period
Coordination with relevant authorities for legal and administrative requirements
3. Reinsertion Support
Short-term assistance provided to ex-combatants before longer-term reintegration begins:
Emergency financial support for basic needs
Temporary accommodation and food assistance
Medical care and psychological counseling
Family reunification services
4. Reintegration
The long-term process of helping former fighters establish sustainable civilian lives:
Vocational training and education programs
Job placement assistance and entrepreneurship support
Community acceptance and reconciliation activities
Ongoing social and economic support networks
Objectives of DDR Programs
Primary Goals:
Reducing the size of national military forces to appropriate peacetime levels
Facilitating successful transition of ex-combatants to productive civilian roles
Creating sustainable economic opportunities in communities receiving former fighters
Ensuring effective release and rehabilitation of child soldiers
Supporting women associated with armed forces through specialized programs
Strengthening institutional capacity for service delivery
Prerequisites for Success
Effective DDR implementation requires specific conditions:
Security Foundation
Complete or near-complete cessation of hostilities
Presence of credible deterrent forces to prevent renewed violence
Trust-building measures between former adversaries
Inclusive Participation
Cooperation from all armed factions and groups
Universal commitment to the peace process
No significant holdout groups that could spoil agreements
Adequate Resources
Sufficient funding for complete program implementation
Long-term financial commitment from donors and government
Contingency planning for unexpected needs or delays
Implementation Requirements
Six Essential Elements for Successful DDR:
1. Military Expenditure Reduction
Systematic decrease in defense spending
Reallocation of military budgets to development priorities
Transparent accounting for military-related expenses
2. Research and Development Reorientation
Converting military research facilities to civilian purposes
Redirecting scientific expertise toward peaceful applications
Technology transfer from military to civilian sectors
3. Defense Industry Conversion
Transforming weapons manufacturing to civilian production
Retraining workers in defense industries
Finding alternative uses for military production facilities
4. Demobilization and Reintegration
Processing large numbers of former combatants simultaneously
Providing comprehensive support services
Monitoring progress and addressing problems
5. Troop Redevelopment
Retraining military personnel for civilian occupations
Career counseling and placement services
Educational opportunities for former soldiers
6. Weapons Management
Safe collection and storage of surplus weapons
Environmentally sound destruction methods
Prevention of weapons diversion to illegal markets
UNIT 5: PEACE AND EDUCATION
Peace Concepts and Definitions
Peace originates from the Latin term "pax," meaning an agreement or contract to end hostilities between conflicting parties. Contemporary understanding encompasses multiple dimensions beyond mere absence of war.
Comprehensive Peace Definition
Peace represents a state of harmony characterized by the absence of hostility, the presence of social justice, and conditions conducive to human flourishing. It manifests at individual, community, national, and international levels.
Dimensions of Peace:
Personal Dimension
Individual psychological well-being and mental tranquility
Inner harmony and freedom from anxiety or distress
Spiritual connection and sense of purpose
Emotional balance and self-acceptance
Interpersonal Dimension
Respectful relationships based on mutual understanding
Constructive communication and conflict resolution skills
Empathy and recognition of others' dignity
Collaborative problem-solving approaches
Societal Dimension
Social justice and equitable distribution of resources
Protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms
Inclusive governance and democratic participation
Cultural diversity appreciation and tolerance
International Dimension
Peaceful coexistence between nations
Diplomatic resolution of disputes
International cooperation on global challenges
Respect for sovereignty and international law
Education's Role in Peace Building
Education serves as a fundamental mechanism for developing peaceful societies by transmitting values, knowledge, and skills necessary for constructive human interaction.
Educational Functions in Peace Development:
Cultural Understanding
Teaching appreciation for diverse cultures, civilizations, and ways of life
Promoting respect for domestic ethnic diversity and international cultures
Developing awareness of global interdependence between peoples and nations
Communication Skills
Enhancing abilities to communicate effectively with others from different backgrounds
Building capacity for dialogue and mutual understanding
Developing language skills that facilitate cross-cultural interaction
Civic Responsibility
Fostering understanding of individual rights and corresponding duties
Encouraging participation in community problem-solving
Building commitment to collective welfare and social responsibility
International Solidarity
Developing appreciation for international cooperation needs
Understanding global challenges requiring collective responses
Building commitment to peaceful resolution of international disputes
Violence Prevention Through Education
Education addresses root causes of violence by challenging assumptions about human nature and providing alternatives to destructive behavior patterns.
Challenging Violence Assumptions:
Demonstrating that violence is learned behavior, not biological destiny
Showing that peaceful societies have existed throughout history
Providing examples of successful non-violent social change
Skill Development:
Conflict resolution and mediation techniques
Critical thinking and analytical abilities
Communication and negotiation skills
Democratic participation and leadership
Peace Education Framework
Peace education represents a systematic approach to developing knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for building peaceful societies.
UNICEF Definition
"The process of promoting knowledge, skills, and values that bring about behavioral changes enabling children, youth, and adults to prevent conflict and violence; resolve conflict peacefully; and create conditions conducive to peace at all levels."
Core Components:
Knowledge Dimension
Understanding causes and dynamics of conflict and violence
Learning about peace traditions and non-violent alternatives
Studying successful examples of conflict transformation
Analyzing structural factors that contribute to peace or violence
Skills Dimension
Communication and active listening abilities
Critical thinking and problem analysis
Conflict resolution and mediation techniques
Leadership and democratic participation skills
Attitudes and Values Dimension
Commitment to non-violence and peaceful conflict resolution
Respect for human dignity and cultural diversity
Responsibility for individual and collective welfare
Hope and confidence in possibilities for positive change
Behavioral Dimension
Consistent practice of peaceful conflict resolution
Active participation in peace-building activities
Modeling of non-violent behavior and attitudes
Engagement in social justice and human rights advocacy
Peace Educator Roles and Responsibilities
Peace educators serve multiple functions in developing peaceful individuals and societies through their teaching, modeling, and community engagement.
Primary Tasks:
Commitment Building
Inspiring dedication to peace as a fundamental value
Enhancing individual confidence as agents of positive change
Demonstrating personal commitment through example and action
Information Provision
Teaching about consequences of war and social injustice
Presenting alternatives to violent conflict resolution
Sharing knowledge about peaceful social structures and institutions
Capacity Development
Building skills for democratic participation and leadership
Teaching conflict resolution and mediation techniques
Developing critical thinking and analytical abilities
Vision Creation
Helping students imagine peaceful futures
Encouraging creative thinking about social problems
Supporting development of positive alternatives to existing conditions
Care and Support
Providing emotional support and encouragement
Modeling caring behavior and relationships
Creating safe learning environments for exploration and growth
Teaching Approaches:
Democratic Classroom Management
Participatory decision-making processes
Respectful dialogue and discussion
Collaborative problem-solving methods
Student empowerment and responsibility
Experiential Learning
Role-playing and simulation exercises
Community service and engagement projects
Conflict resolution practice and application
Leadership development opportunities
Critical Analysis
Examination of violence and injustice in society
Analysis of peace and conflict case studies
Evaluation of media messages and cultural norms
Development of independent thinking skills
This comprehensive approach to peace education recognizes that building peaceful societies requires systematic attention to individual development, relationship building, institutional change, and cultural transformation.
Handout on Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
Module 3: Global Trends in Peace and Conflict Issues
Point 1: International, Continental, and Regional Organisations in the Promotion of Global Peace
Organisations at the international, continental, and regional levels are essential in preventing wars, mediating disputes, and promoting long-term peace. Conflicts today rarely remain confined to one country; they often spill across borders through refugees, arms trade, terrorism, or economic disruption. This makes collective approaches necessary.
The United Nations (UN)
Founded in 1945 after World War II, the UN remains the leading global organisation dedicated to peace and security.
Functions: peacekeeping operations, mediation, humanitarian aid, post-conflict reconstruction, and setting international norms (through charters, conventions, and resolutions).
Example: UN Peacekeeping missions in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of Congo have helped stabilise fragile post-war societies.
The UN Security Council authorises coercive actions like sanctions or military interventions, while the General Assembly provides broader dialogue.
The African Union (AU)
Established in 2002 to replace the Organisation of African Unity (OAU).
It seeks African-led solutions to African problems, with emphasis on sovereignty, development, and peacebuilding.
Example: The AU’s Peace and Security Council intervened in conflicts in Darfur (Sudan) and Somalia.
The AU also promotes initiatives like “Silencing the Guns in Africa,” aimed at ending wars on the continent.
The European Union (EU)
Initially created as an economic bloc, the EU later expanded into political and peacebuilding roles.
By linking economic integration with peace, it has prevented war among its members since 1945.
The EU also supports stability outside Europe, for instance, mediating in the Balkans and funding reconstruction in post-conflict zones.
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
Founded in 1975, ECOWAS focuses on regional economic cooperation but is equally known for its conflict management.
Example: ECOWAS deployed peacekeeping troops (ECOMOG) during the civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone in the 1990s.
Its mediation role remains important in political crises across West Africa, such as recent coups in Mali, Guinea, and Niger.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
Originally established in 1949 as a military alliance for collective defence during the Cold War.
Over time, NATO evolved to engage in crisis management and peace support operations globally.
Example: NATO intervened in Kosovo (1999) and also played roles in Afghanistan and Libya.
Together, these organisations illustrate that peacebuilding requires coordination at different levels, with global, continental, and regional institutions complementing each other.
Point 2: Peaceful Approaches to Conflict Resolution I
Conflicts do not always have to escalate into violence. Various peaceful strategies are designed to de-escalate tension and help parties reach agreements without force.
Negotiation
The simplest and most direct method. Parties involved meet face-to-face and bargain over their differences.
Requires compromise, trust, and willingness to find common ground.
Example: The Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland (1998) was reached through intense negotiation between Catholic and Protestant communities.
Mediation
Involves a neutral third party who facilitates dialogue but does not impose decisions.
Mediators help clarify issues, reduce hostility, and build bridges.
Example: Former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan mediated in the Kenyan post-election crisis of 2007–2008, helping restore peace.
Conciliation
The conciliator is more proactive, suggesting possible solutions rather than just facilitating.
Conciliation often works where relations are extremely hostile and communication is broken.
Good Offices
Involves respected individuals or institutions offering a platform for dialogue without influencing the substance of the talks.
Example: The Vatican has often offered its good offices in international disputes.
These methods succeed best when both sides are willing to engage, when trust-building measures are in place, and when cultural sensitivities are respected.
Point 3: Peaceful Approaches to Conflict Resolution II
Some conflicts require more formalised and legalistic approaches:
Arbitration
Parties voluntarily submit their dispute to an impartial arbitrator or tribunal.
The decision is binding and usually respected because both sides agreed in advance.
Example: The border dispute between Ethiopia and Eritrea (2000) was resolved through arbitration under the Permanent Court of Arbitration.
Judicial Settlement
Disputes can be taken to international courts for resolution.
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the UN, settling disputes between states.
Example: The ICJ resolved the Cameroon–Nigeria dispute over the Bakassi Peninsula (2002).
Inquiry or Fact-Finding
A neutral commission investigates disputed issues, clarifies facts, and reports findings.
Useful where misinformation or conflicting narratives fuel tensions.
These approaches strengthen reliance on law, fairness, and objectivity, reducing the tendency of states to resort to unilateral force.
Point 4: Coercive Approaches to Conflict Resolution
When peaceful methods fail, more forceful measures may be adopted:
Sanctions
Economic restrictions, trade embargoes, or diplomatic isolation imposed to pressure a state or group.
Example: International sanctions on apartheid South Africa contributed to the dismantling of the system.
Blockades
Restricting access to goods, ports, or territories to weaken the opponent’s position.
Example: Naval blockades during conflicts have been used to cut off supplies and weaken resistance.
Military Intervention
Armed intervention, usually authorised by the UN or regional organisations, to halt violence and restore peace.
Example: NATO intervention in Kosovo (1999) to stop ethnic cleansing.
While coercive measures can be effective in halting immediate violence, they often carry risks such as humanitarian suffering, unintended escalation, or prolonged resentment.
Point 5: Gender and Humanitarian Concerns in Conflict Resolution
Gender Perspectives
Men and women experience conflict differently. Women and children often bear the greatest suffering.
Sexual violence is frequently used as a weapon of war, making protection and justice vital.
Including women in peace processes has proven to produce more durable and inclusive agreements.
Example: In Liberia, women’s peace movements, led by figures like Leymah Gbowee, played a crucial role in ending the civil war.
Humanitarian Concerns
Conflicts produce refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs), creating crises of food, shelter, and health.
Respect for human rights and humanitarian law (e.g., Geneva Conventions) is central.
Humanitarian organisations like the Red Cross and UNHCR work to provide relief and protection.
Addressing gender and humanitarian concerns ensures that peace is not just about silencing guns, but about building societies where justice and dignity prevail.
Part 4: Practical Global Conflict Issues
This module applies theory to practice, drawing lessons from real-world conflicts:
Middle East: The Israeli–Palestinian conflict highlights the complexity of territorial disputes, identity politics, and religious factors. Multiple negotiations have failed because of deep mistrust and unresolved core issues.
Rwanda (1994): The genocide shows the dangers of ethnic hatred and the cost of international inaction. Later reconciliation efforts, such as the Gacaca courts, demonstrate local approaches to justice.
Sierra Leone and Liberia: West African civil wars illustrate the role of regional organisations (ECOWAS) in peace enforcement.
Bosnia and the Balkans: International interventions (including NATO and the UN) reveal both successes and limitations in halting ethnic violence.
These cases show that peacebuilding is complex, requiring cultural understanding, strong institutions, and international solidarity.
Part 5: Contemporary Challenges in Peace and Conflict Studies
The field continues to evolve with new global realities:
Terrorism
Armed extremist groups like Al-Qaeda, ISIS, and Boko Haram undermine global stability.
Counterterrorism requires both security measures and addressing root causes such as poverty and marginalisation.
Global Inequality
Vast gaps in wealth, opportunity, and resources create resentment and unrest.
Conflicts often emerge in societies where a few dominate resources while the majority remain excluded.
Environmental Conflicts
Climate change, droughts, desertification, and resource shortages increasingly spark disputes.
Example: Competition over water resources in the Nile Basin.
Weak Governance
Fragile states with corruption, poor leadership, and lack of institutions struggle to resolve conflicts peacefully.
Example: Somalia’s long-standing instability.
These contemporary challenges require innovative thinking—such as climate diplomacy, inclusive governance, and regional cooperation—to build lasting peace.