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INTRODUCTION TO THE PENTATEUCH
The Pentateuch refers to the first five books of the Bible. It occupies a very important place in Judaism and in Christianity.
The Pentateuch remains a principal text that serve as a source of Israelite history, especially her early history. In this course we shall introduce you to the books classified as the Pentateuch and
the reasons they were so classified. It is hoped that this would lay the foundation for the subsequent examination of the Pentateuch and all that relates to it.
What is the Pentateuch?
The word ‘Pentateuch’ is a compound word from two Greek words: pent which means five and teuchos which means scroll, document, book. When used in relation to the Old Testament, it means the first five books. Origen, one of the early church fathers, was the first to use the term ‘Pentateuch’ in reference to these books. Among the Jews it is called Torah, which some translated to mean ‘Law’. Torah, however could mean, principle, instruction or guideline. In essence therefore, the ancient Israelites see the Pentateuch as a guiding principle for their socio-religious activities. It has foundational and normative values. That is why it is said that the Pentateuch occupies a unique place in the life of the people.
Books Classified as Pentateuch
The books classified as the Pentateuch are the following: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. In the Hebrew bible, (you should remember that the Pentateuch was originally
written in Hebrew language, the language spoken by the ancient
Israelites) the first key word of phrase of each book of the Pentateuch is the title. For example, Genesis is called “Bereshith” which means “in the beginning “. Exodus is called “Elleh
Shemoth” which means, “these are the names”. Leviticus is called “wayiqra” which means ‘ and he called’. Numbers is called “Bammidbar” which means ‘in the wilderness’. The books of Deuteronomy is called “Devarim” meaning ‘words’. The English names for the books of Pentateuch were derived from the
Septuagint (LXX). The English titles therefore have Greek background.
Genesis = “Beginning’
Exodus = ‘Way out’
Leviticus = ‘Pertaining to the Levites’
Numbers= ‘Numbering’
Deuteronomy = ‘Second law’
Pentateuch in Israelite History
That the Israelite history is firmly rooted in addressing the destiny of humanity cannot be contested. It is however the Pentateuch that helps us to understand better God’s purpose for Israel especially in relation to the redemption of mankind. The Pentateuch begins
with the creation of human, the subsequent fall and the attendant
consequences and the process of restoration.
The historical framework of the Pentateuch consists of the formation of Israel, from the call of Abraham to the death of Moses. It spans a period of over 600 years, that is, from about 1900 BC to about 1250 BC. However it may be difficult to determine the precise dates the events recorded in the Pentateuch
happened. The difficult part that cannot be dated easily is the early stage of the Israelite history, especially what is referred to as the patriarchal history (i.e. the history of the early ancestors of
Israel).
The Pentateuch can be divided into two main sub-divisions. The first is about the story of the patriarchs – Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph (Gen. 12-50) and the second section relates the story of Moses and the formation of the nation of Israel (Exodus – Deuteronomy). Genesis 1-11 however serves as prologue to the
Pentateuch; it connects the whole of humanity to God’s purpose to be fulfilled through Israel.
THE AUTHORSHIP OF PENTATEUCH
Introduction
The issue of the authorship of the Pentateuch remains a contentious one in contemporary Old Testament scholarship. In this unit we will look into the composition of the Pentateuch. The argument of the authorship of the Pentateuch centers on Mosaic authorship. In view of this, the different arguments and evidences raised in order to support the fact that Moses was the author will be examined. Likewise the
arguments against this position will also be examined.
Authorship of the Pentateuch
The issue of who actually wrote the Pentateuch is a serious one in the field of Old Testament studies. The problem is compounded because the Pentateuch is anonymously written. In other words, nowhere do these five books explicitly or implicitly indicate the author. However, until the rise of modern Biblical criticism, the Jews and the Christians had always
taken at face value the claim that the Pentateuch was written by the historic Moses of 15th Century B.C. This position that Moses was the author of the Pentateuch has been variously and seriously challenged.
This for example, has led to the formation of the popular documentary
hypothesis about the composition of the Pentateuch. We shall discuss in detail the documentary hypothesis in the next unit. However, before then we shall examine the arguments for and against Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch.
Arguments against Mosaic Authorship of the Pentateuch
1.Anachronisms in the Pentateuch do not support the fact that it was written by Moses. By anachronism, we mean making reference to a later development, or events in a time when those events and developments have not happened. For example, if I say “My great-great grandfather traveled in an aeroplane 2000 years ago”. This statement is anachronistic because aeroplane was invented over 100 years ago. In Gen. 36:31, we read “these were the kings who reigned in Edom before any Israelite king reigned.” Someone who was aware that kings were already reigning in Israel would make this statement. On the basis of anachronistic texts like this in Pentateuch, Mosaic Authorship was rejected.
2. There are features, which suggest that these five books are not the product of a single author or of a single age. The same events are sometimes described more than once, with significance
difference. On the other hand, plain contradictions occur with single stories, in such a way as to point to the interweaving of varying traditions or written records. For example, Gen. 1:1-2:4a gives a different account of creation from that contained in Gen. 2:4b-25 (see also Gen. 6:19, Exodus 7:2ff).
3. There are also discrepancies that negate Mosaic authorship of the
Pentateuch. One of the most significant discrepancies concerns the use of different names for God. In Exodus 6:2ff we read, “ And God appeared to Moses and said to him, I am Yahweh, and I
appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, to Jacob as Elshaddai, but by my name Yahweh I did not make myself known to them”. But
Genesis 4:1, 26 imply the use of the name Yahweh from very early times, and in Gen. 27:7 and 28:13 God says to Abraham and to Jacob ‘I am Yahweh’.
4.There are differences in vocabulary and style in various parts of both the narratives and laws in Pentateuch. These differences show that several authors must have written the Pentateuch. The
variations of style and vocabulary also correspond with other differences. This therefore strengthens the case for diversity of authorship.
5. In the time of Moses, the art of writing was said not to be in existence. In the light of this, the Pentateuch must have been written long after Moses.
Arguments for Mosaic Authorship of the Pentateuch
1. There are internal evidences that support the fact that the Pentateuch must have been written by Moses. For example in several instances Moses was commanded to write what he heard
and saw. For example, Exodus 17:14.
“And Moses wrote down all the words of the LORD. He rose early in the morning, and built an altar at the foot of the
mountain, and set up twelve pillars, corresponding to the twelve tribes of Israel” (Exodus 24:4).
2. References were made in other Old Testament books that Moses was the author of the Pentateuch (see Jos. 1:8; Ex. 20:25, I Kings 2:3).
3. Some of the artifacts and inscriptions discovered today by archaeologists attested to the fact that writing was in existence even before the time of Moses.
4. The New Testament acknowledges Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch.
5.The Pentateuch has internal evidence of being written by an eyewitness of the exodus:
a.He knows details, like how many wells and trees were at Elim, and the exact appearance and taste of manna (Ex.15:22).
b. The author uses old names and example from Egypt to explain things in Pentateuch (Gen. 13:10, 23:2,Num.
13:22)
c. He uses a greater percentage of Egyptian words than elsewhere in the Old Testament.
From the argument against and for the authorship of the Pentateuch, it is
evident that both positions are tenable. However, in conclusion, Moses could have written something. However, what he wrote must have been elaborated and expanded by
subsequent generations. This may be done in order to accommodate prevailing
sensibilities. Our present Pentateuch therefore, cannot be taken as the
original work of Moses
In the last unit you will recall that we said that the Mosaic authorship of
the Pentateuch is in dispute. It was in the process of finding who the author of the Pentateuch was, that the documentary hypothesis was adumbrated. The hypothesis is one of the critical approaches in addressing the problem of Pentateuchal authorship.
The documentary hypothesis is the
theory that the Pentateuch was a
compilation of selection from several different written documents composed at different places and times over a period of five centuries long after Moses. The documentary hypothesis had its beginning with Jean Astruc a French Physician, who became interested in the literary analysis of Genesis. In his studies of Genesis, Astruc discovered that God was referred to only as “Elohim” in Genesis 1 and mostly as “Jehovah” (or Yahweh) in Genesis 2. He did not however deny Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch. He only tried to account for the occurrences of two different names in the two chapters. This led Astruc
to the conclusion that Moses used two different written sources, which gave two different accounts of creation.
Subsequently, scholars labeled these sources J and E, based on the divine names Yahweh and Elohim.
The next stage came with J.G. Eichorn, who in one of his works published in 1783 divided the entire book of Genesis, plus the first two chapters of Exodus. He separated the materials that belonged to Yahwist and Elohist (J and E). This method was also employed by subsequent scholars who identified materials belonging to J and E in other parts of the Pentateuch. For now you should have in mind that two written
sources have so far been identified as being behind the composition of the Pentateuch. These are sources J and E. You also remember that the occurrence of the divine nomenclature Jehovah (J) and Elohim (E) in different narratives of the same event accounted for the two sources.
The third stage came with the contribution of William M.L. De Wette.
This concerns the book of Deuteronomy. He set fourth the view that none of the Pentateuch came from a period earlier than the time of David. De Wette also believed that Deuteronomy bore all earmarks of being the book of law, which was found by priest Hilkiah. This was
during the reforms of Josiah in 622B.C (II Kings 22) when the king and the priests were united in the purpose to abolish all worship and sacrifice to Jehovah outside the capital city (Jerusalem). In view of this, De Wette came to the conclusion that the book purportedly found by the priest Hilkiah was a forgery. The book was concocted to serve the
governmental campaign. This document was believed to lie behind the
composition of our present Deuteronomy. It was called D because it was entirely separate in origin from J and E. De Wette came to this conclusion because he discovered that the life – situation or what we call plot, is not that of the time of Moses but long after the settlement in Canaan. Now three hypothetical written sources have been identified as
being behind the composition of the Pentateuch: these are D.E.J.
In 1853 Herman Hupfeld, in his work, The Sources of Genesis subjected E to a thorough re-examination. In the process, he found two distinct sources. First one E2 consisting of those rather considerable portions of the Elohist (E) that greatly resembled J in style, vocabulary, and subject matter. He called the other document E1. The E1 document was what scholars later renamed P or the Priestly code. This is because it
contains cultic and ritual legislation. That is, it has to do with issues like the
sacrifice, priestly ordination, priestly conduct etc. We now have the fourth source P that was behind the composition of the Pentateuch.
After the works of Hupfeld, others also made one contribution or the other to the documentary hypothesis. However, the scholar who set the stage for the definitive formulation of the documentary hypothesis was Julius Wellhaussen. Although Wellhaussen contributed no innovations to speak of, he only restated the documentary theory with great skill and persuasiveness supporting the JEDP sequence. He was able to suggest when, where and how the different sources developed. He believed that source J was the first to be written. It was probably written around the tenth century B.C. This is followed by source E written probably after the division of the kingdom of Israel in 922B.C. Source D was written around the seventh Century B.C. while P was post-exilic in character,
that is, it was written after the Babylonian exile.
According to the exponents of the documentary hypothesis, these sources were creatively weaved together by an editor in the post exilic period. Evidence to support this fact can be seen in the tensions noticeable in the text. The differences in style, vocabulary and
perspectives are pointers to the fact that the materials that made up the
Pentateuch emanated from different origins. Besides, the socio-political
sensibilities of the areas where these sources emanated are indicated in the narratives.
A Brief Description of the Sources
Y or J – the author of this source is called “Yahwist” because he preferred the name Yahweh as God’s personal name. The reason why J is used to designate this source is because the Germans were the leading exponents of this hypothesis. The German spelling of “Yahweh” is “Jahweh”, that is how the latter J was used to describe the author and the narrative.
One of the characteristics of J is that the authors show particular interest in the Southern tribe of Judah. Heroes from Judah were stressed, and the leading position of Judah among the tribes of Israel was given a prime position.
E – the author of this source is probably from the Northern tribes of Israel (remember that Israel broke into two during the reign of Rehoboam, the Northern kingdom composed of 10 tribes were called Israel, while the Southern tribes 2 in number were called Judah). The writers of this source represent the perspectives of the Northern tribes,
who never fully united with the southern tribes. This source is called ‘Elohistic’ because the name of God used is Elohim. The writer believed that the name predates the name Yahweh later revealed to Moses. However, after the fall of the Northern kingdom in 722B.C a redactor
(check for redaction criticism in unit 2) from the southern kingdom harmonized J and E.
D – This source basically relate to the composition of Deuteronomy. It can be traced to the book of law found by the priest Hilkiah (II Kings 22). The main goal of the document was to serve as the framework for the reforms of Josiah. It set out with the goal and agenda of
centralization of the cult and reformation of Israel’s religion.
P– The priestly source can be traced to a priestly narrator who supplemented the JE narrative with ritual and cultic materials. These materials are found primarily in the cultic legislation in Exodus 25-31, 35-40, and in the laws of sacrifices, festivals and ritual purity found throughout Leviticus. The development of the Priestly code was borne out of the concern to make Israelite religion unique. When the people were taken into exile, the priests assumed leadership. This led to
emphasis on rituals and cultic legislation.
A Critique of the Documentary Hypothesis
It is important to note here that down through the centuries, the documentary hypothesis has been subjected to a serious criticism. There are those who vehemently disagreed with the premises and conclusions of the exponents of the hypothesis. In order to maintain a balance, it will be better to be exposed to some objections raised against the
documentary hypothesis. These are:
1. The theory is hypothetical in character. That is the theory does not have valid historical evidences to support it. If it is true that there are written sources behind the composition of the
Pentateuch, then where are the documents? If the written sources
cannot be produced it will amount to nothing but a speculative exercise.
2. On the use of different names for God, critics of the documentary hypothesis believed that in most cultures and religions of the world, there are several names for God. A writer might use the
divine names interchangeably. This may account for the occurrences of Yahweh and Elohim in the different parts of the
Pentateuch.
3. The documentary hypothesis is subjective in its judgment. This must have accounted for the lack of uniformity as to what belongs to a source or the other. If the documentary hypothesis is based on valid historical evidences, there should be some element of unity.
4. It is very difficult based on the use of divine nomenclature, to categorise materials in Pentateuch as emanating either from the South or Northern Israel. The usage of Yahweh and Elohim is
popular in both kingdoms and this is because they were one kingdom before the division.
5. It is also difficult to determine mainly on differences of style and vocabulary, how the Pentateuch was finally edited. The same person can decide to vary his style. Furthermore, the subject matter discussed determines ranges of vocabulary to be sued.