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European (Greek and Roman)
Greek Tragedy
Origins of Theatre
Theatre developed from ritual and imitation. It began in Greece about the 6th century B.C with dithyrambs to honour the god of wine and harvest. Dionysus was a legend's son who was killed and dismembered but he resurrected. Thus, his life was related to the cycle of life (spring summer, fall, winter and back to spring). Dionysus was worshiped to ensure the return of spring.
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Dithyrambs and Tragedy
The Dithyramb was performed by a chorus of fifty men or boys, led by a priest. As the festival continued, the Dithyramb developed, the chorus dressed as satyrs and creatures that were half goat and half man, the worship was then known as goat song or stragodia, tragedy is derived from this term. The first of these actors was Thespis, thespian which refers to actors.
Introduction of Actors
Actors were introduced to the dithyrambs and this added dialogue. But the actor played many roles by changing masks. The chorus remained the unifying force of the play. It's recorded that in 534 BC Thespis performed and won the prize at the first tragedy contest in Greece.
Development of Drama in Greek Cities
Drama developed in Greece in these three cities: Dionysia held in Athens at the end of March, Lenai in January and another in rural Dionysia in December. The person that was in charge of all the arrangements was known as the Archon. He selected the plays and the order to present them. He also selected wealthy citizens to bear the cost of room and board for the chorus. These citizens were known and called choregi. The Archon was elected, but the choregi appointed.
Playwrights and Festival Structure
Playwrights applied to the Archon and if their play was selected, they were expected to present three tragedies and one satyr with music at the festival. The actors were paid by the state. Admission to the festival was free and everyone was expected to attend.
The Dionysia Festival
Each year 10 dithyrambs would be presented—five made of choruses of boys and five made of choruses of men. The most important festival was the Dionysia. When it was held, all prisoners were freed and no legal proceedings continued. Dignitaries came in from other states. It began with a procession—Acropolis carried out and back into the city with great celebration. After this, the dithyrambs were presented.
Theatre Structures
At first, the plays were presented outdoors in a flat place at the base of a hill. An altar of Dionysus called Themele was usually located at the middle of each site. Later, a house was added for the initial purpose of providing a dressing room for actors; it also served as a backstage room. With time, the scene house developed to a two-storey building with various openings. The second storey was used for the appearance of gods while the doors below were used for actors to appear on openings in the building—Thyronata.
Scenery and Stage Machinery
Since the plays were acted outside, little scenery was used. Painted planks were leaned on the exterior of the scene house, tall prisms with three sides that could rotate to depict appropriate scenes. Machinery was also used. A device called a Crane was used to raise and lower the gods as they appear. Another machine was the eccycema; this was a cart used to carry warriors killed in battle in the play.
Greek Actors and Their Role
Actors were highly respected, trusted, and exempted from military service. Greek acting, when compared to modern acting, was artificial.
Contribution of Aristotle
Greek theatre's most important contribution to our era is the writing of someone who was neither an actor nor a playwright — Aristotle.
Origins of Greek Theatre
Greek theatre and drama are traceable to rituals and festivals. These were exclusively taken from the great cycle of mythology. To the Greeks, ancient myths and heroic legends were like recorded social, political, and religious history of the people (e.g., the Bible).
Fathers of Greek Theatre
The greatest fathers of Greek theatre were:
- Aeschylus
- Sophocles
- Euripides
Aristotle on Drama
Aristotle determined that, like poetry, drama is imitation, but adds that it uses direct action rather than narrative to achieve its ends.
Aristotle on Greek Tragedy
According to Aristotle, tragedy has six elements:
- Plot
- Character
- Diction
- Thought
- Spectacle (scenic effect)
- Song (music)
He stated particularly that plot and character are the most important elements of tragedy.
Structure of an Ideal Tragic Plot
The ideal tragic plot should:
- Be complete and whole, with a definite beginning, middle, and end.
- Have a length that is easily comprehensible.
- Contain a central theme.
The plot should include:
- (a) Prologue
- (b) Parados
- (c) Episode
- (d) Exodus
In a Nutshell: An Ideal Tragedy Should Have
- (a) Plot
- (b) Theme
- (c) Characterization.
Greek comedy developed later than tragedy and was considered inferior to tragedy. However, it was important to Greek citizens who stressed the concept of a well-balanced man. Though the comedies were presented at the city of Dionysia, they were given more support at the festival at Lenaia. They used 24 members in the chorus and more actors than the tragedy. The subject matter was on contemporary issues. Mostly, they were political satires.
In the comedies, there was less emphasis on plots and more on characters. The playwrights invented their own plots rather than base them on Greek mythology. Episodes in comedies were many and unrelated but built great comic intensity. Greek comedies were divided into two: New Comedy and Old Comedy.
Aristophanes is an example of an Old Comedy playwright. He lived from about 444 to 390 BC. Examples of Old Greek Comedy include The Clouds, The Birds, Lysistrata, and The Wasps.